Kdushinsky distinguished two types of education. Pedagogical works of K.D.
Moscow City Pedagogical University
Faculty of English Philology
Philosophy Abstract
and educational history
"Pedagogical heritage
Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky "
Performed:
1st year student
Groups 104
Kuzina I.
Checked:
Kurakina E.B.
Moscow, 2004
Section I General characteristics of the study ............................................. .... 3
Section II Pedagogical theory and activity of K.D. Ushinsky ................... 4
Chapter 1. Brief biography. Formation of a worldview .............................. 4
Chapter 2. Education and the community ............................................ ................... 7
Chapter 3. The principle of nationality upbringing ............................................ ............. eight
Chapter 4. On the educational value of labor. Man as a subject of education 11
Chapter 5. The principle of conformity with nature and the construction of education .................. 14
§1. The principle of conformity to nature ................................................ .................. fourteen
§2. On the education of attention, will, memory, emotions ......................................... . fourteen
§3. Two stages of the learning process .............................................. ...................... 15
§4. Methodological sequence of training ...................................... 16
§5. Visual Teaching ................................................ ..................................... 17
Chapter 6. Ushinsky as a supporter of the class-lesson system ......................... 19
§1. Classroom-lesson system .............................................. .............................. 19
§2 Teaching and Learning Methods ............................................ ................... 19
§3. Didactics. Ushinsky's educational books "Native Word" and "Children's World" 21
Chapter 7. Issues of education ............................................. .............................. 23
§1. Ushinsky about education ............................................... ................................ 23
§2. Role patriotic education.............................................................. 23
§3. The principle of humane education ............................................... ................... 24
§4. Methodology of moral education. Punishments and rewards. Person-subject of education .............................................. .................................................. .......... 25
Chapter 8 The teacher. His activities and basic qualities ................................. 27
Chapter 9. Conclusion .............................................. ............................................ 29
List of used literature ............................................... ................. thirty
General characteristics of the study
KD Ushinsky belonged to that generous decade of Russian history, which brought forward a brilliant galaxy of thinkers and artists who enriched the treasury of world culture. The creativity of KD Ushinsky was a major step in the enrichment of pedagogical knowledge. The Russian scientist discovered new, main paths of development of pedagogy, raised pedagogy to the level of science.
The significance of the work of the great Russian teacher is not limited to his contribution to the development of pedagogical science. The influence of KD Ushinsky went beyond the school and pedagogy. It stretched deeply into the area of national culture, acted as one of the leading forces in the formation of Russian social and pedagogical consciousness. The words of a colleague of the great teacher and his student L.N. Modzalevsky, who succinctly and accurately defined the place of KD Ushinsky in the history of Russian culture: “Ushinsky is our truly people's teacher, just like Lomonosov is our people's scientist, Suvorov is our people's commander, Pushkin is our people's poet, Glinka - our folk composer ”.
The objective of the research is to give a general outline of the pedagogue's heritage. The essay examines the worldview of KD Ushinsky, which had a significant impact on his pedagogical creativity, analyzes his views on the problems of education and training.
The research used the works and articles of Ushinsky:
· Pedagogical trip around Switzerland
Teachers' seminary project
· About the need to make Russian schools Russian
About the benefits of pedagogical literature
· Labor in its mental and educational meaning
Pedagogical theory and activity of K.D. Ushinsky
Short biography. Formation of a worldview
KD Ushinsky was born on March 2 in Tula into a poor noble family. He grew up and was brought up in Novgorod-Seversky, Chernigov province. Until the age of 11, the boy studied at home, and then he entered the third grade of the gymnasium. At the age of 16, after graduating from high school, he went with two friends to Moscow to enter the university. Having passed the tests, Ushinsky in 1840 became a student of the law faculty of Moscow University. After graduating from the university, in 1846, Konstantin Ushinsky was appointed acting professor of "cameral sciences" (economics, finance, etc.) at the Yaroslavl Demidov Juridical Lyceum. The young professor was distinguished by his courage and independence of judgment. In his lectures, he fascinatingly revealed ideas that were advanced for that time and enjoyed the love of students. For some time (from March to May 1848) he edited the unofficial part of the newspaper "Yaroslavskie Provincial Gazette" and contributed to the promotion of natural science and historical knowledge. "The articles written by KD Ushinsky for the Yaroslavl newspaper," writes DN Ivanov, who studied the life and work of the great teacher in Yaroslavl, "were his first literary speeches ... They quite vividly reflected his social and political views. In them he raised and discussed issues of state importance, contrary to instructions for local newspapers. "
The Yaroslavl period in Ushinsky's life was of great importance: here his pedagogical skills were improved, advanced pedagogical views were developed. The authorities suspected the young teacher of political unreliability, and in 1849 he was fired from the lyceum. This was a great loss for the progressive democratic intelligentsia and students of Yaroslavl. "Do not leave us," the students wrote to Ushinsky. "We are so accustomed to your living word, so much in love with you that we do not want to come to terms with the thought of separation from you." Having moved to St. Petersburg, Ushinsky actively cooperates on topical issues of pedagogy and public education in Nekrasovskiy "Sovremennik", teaches literature and geography at the Gatchina Orphanage Institute, works as an inspector of the Smolny Institute.
Progressive activity in the Strong Institute aroused the discontent of the reactionaries, who, at the beginning of 1862, reportedly dismissed him as a teacher dangerous to young people. In subsequent years, Ushinsky devoted himself entirely to literary and pedagogical activity. "To do as much benefit as possible for my fatherland," he wrote, "this is the only goal of my life, and to it I must direct all my abilities."
Scientific, pedagogical and literary activity of Ushinsky was deeply alien and hostile official Russia... When D. Ushinsky died on December 22, 1870 (January 3, 1871), L.N. Trefolev prepared an obituary about him for the Yaroslavl Provincial Gazette, which displeased the Yaroslavl Vice Governor. Our contemporaries deeply honor the memory of the great Russian teacher. Pedagogical readings are held annually, a medal of K. D. Ushinsky was established, Complete collection his writings. In Yaroslavl, the street is named after him.
Yaroslavl Pedagogical University bears the name of KD Ushinsky.
The beginning of KD Ushinsky's pedagogical activity coincided with the rise of the social movement in Russia in the mid-50s of the 19th century. But not only coincided. His activity was caused and wholly conditioned by this movement.
KD Ushinsky entered pedagogy when school and pedagogical science faced the need for radical transformations. But any "historical need calls for the activity of people and gives the strength of their activity." In Russian pedagogy of the 60s, the "historical need" gave rise to a remarkable phalanx of pedagogues - the sixties. Ushinsky became their inspirer and ideologist.
“Every century,” wrote Chernyshevsky, “has its own historical cause, its own special aspirations. The life and glory of our time are two aspirations, closely related to each other and complementing one another: humanity and concern for the improvement of human life. ... Even individual sciences acquire or lose their relative importance to the extent to which they serve the dominant needs of the century " ... KD Ushinsky put pedagogy at the service of these needs. The main, the main task of his work was the implementation in pedagogy of the social requirements of the era of the fall of serfdom and those requirements that were put forward by the logic of the development of science itself.
The root of the contradictory views of the great teacher is the clash between the objective content of his democratic requirements and the subjective limitations of his socio-philosophical views. This limitation had, however, an objective basis. The contradictions inherent in KD Ushinsky's worldview were generated not only by a subjective, personal factor, but also by an objective factor - specific historical conditions. These objective historical conditions included, on the one hand, the social situation and, on the other, the real situation in science: the state of scientific knowledge and the level of its generalization in philosophy.
The worldview positions of the young Ushinsky during the years of study at Moscow University were formed under the influence of two main directions; idealistic philosophy, predominantly the Hegelian system, a talented propagandist of which was Professor P.G. atmosphere, more precisely - the socio-psychological atmosphere of the environment that surrounded the future teacher.KD Ushinsky's deep study of the achievements of natural sciences, which was one of the prerequisites for the creation of "Pedagogical Anthropology", significantly changed the ratio of worldview factors in his views, which were mentioned above In the 60s, he debunked objective idealism as a "new mythology", sharply criticized it for neglecting the real world and real knowledge for the sake of the "absolute spirit", which "develops the whole world out of itself" (III, 345). Natural science, he wrote. scientist, discovered the inconsistency of the "ideal philosophy ophii "; in turn, it itself "deprived the natural sciences of the necessary assistance to philosophy" (III, 351).
Nevertheless, the religiosity of KD Ushinsky left a noticeable mark on his pedagogical work. Especially - in the ethical concept of the teacher and in his theory of moral education. It was here that the contradictory ideological position of the scientist was manifested most of all - the combination of religion and morality, the endowment of religion with moral sanction. Ushinsky remained faithful to the most widespread prejudice of the era - the exaggeration of the moral significance of religion (especially of the original Christianity), a prejudice that even many representatives of pre-Marxian materialism, who absolutely did not accept religions, could not escape, “... Christianity,” wrote, for example, L. Feuerbach, “ brought into the world another means of culture: morality, the doctrine of morality. "
Giving science the sphere of knowledge and leaving religion the sphere of morality, KD Ushinsky at the same time emphasized more than once that the morality implanted by the official church is "conditional", that the church, state and society "take from morality" only what they " you need for your existence and success ”(X, 345).
Ushinsky's social attitudes were the basis of his ideological positions, the foundation and prerequisite for his pedagogical ideas. The value and strength of these ideas lies most of all precisely in their social capacity. Ushinsky's work clearly reveals the specifics and internal logic of social and pedagogical theories: the more democratic these theories are, the more effective and promising their scientific output.
Education and the public
Developing a pedagogical theory based on his philosophical and socio-political concept, K.D. Ushinsky strove first of all to reveal the general, fundamental problems of pedagogy. He repeatedly pointed to "the close connection that exists between education and the philosophical sciences" and which, according to him, "so stubbornly", many of his contemporaries did not want to understand. "The basis of upbringing," wrote Ushinsky, "should be and be guided by a philosophical idea." Pedagogy is essentially a "philosophical science and then requires the unity of the idea."
KD Ushinsky clearly understood that pedagogy is a social science, that social being determines the course and direction of education, its tasks and content. “Education,” he wrote, “can only move forward with the movement of the whole society” (II, 165). Ushinsky considered the main condition for the development of upbringing, firstly, the compliance of its goals and content with social needs and, secondly, the broad participation of society in solving pedagogical problems. Only upbringing has “real educational power”, which “will base its rules on public opinion and live and develop with it” (II, 36-37).
This fundamental attitude about the dependence of upbringing on social life was the methodological foundation of Ushinsky's concept. But this dependence, in his opinion, did not at all exclude the possibility of the reverse influence of upbringing on life. On the contrary, Ushinsky constantly emphasized that the teacher should be active, should strive to ensure that his activities in every possible way contribute to the improvement of social life. “He must lead new generations out of school ... fully prepared for the struggle that awaits them” (VIII, 661). In an effort to confirm the active position of the teacher, KD Ushinsky often overestimated the social possibilities of education. The enlightening character of his ideological attitudes is fully reflected here. It sometimes seemed to the scientist that a “good upbringing” could rid society of many social evils. But, even overestimating the power of upbringing, Ushinsky never tired of emphasizing that upbringing will only acquire this power when it focuses on promising trends in social development, when it meets the requirements and interests of advanced social forces.
The principle of national education
The idea of the correspondence of public education to public needs was most vividly embodied in the principle of the nationality of education, which became the core of Ushinsky's pedagogical concept.
In methodological terms, the principle of the nationality of upbringing acted as a fundamental law of the development of education - school and upbringing should be built, first of all, in full accordance with the characteristics and needs of their country. Sharply criticizing the supporters of the mechanical borrowing of foreign experience, KD Ushinsky wrote: “We ... are assimilating those and other educational principles of the West and, under their influence, we want to transform and arrange our public education. Rarely do we realize from what general idea these various rules flow, ”and we are naively surprised when, applying them at home, we find that they contradict each other. Meanwhile, if you give yourself the trouble to extract this basic, general idea, then the conclusion, according to Ushinsky, will be quite definite. "The educational ideas of every nation," he formulated this conclusion, "are imbued with nationality more than anything else, penetrated to the point that it is impossible to even think of transferring them to someone else's soil." Borrowing these ideas recklessly, “we endure only their dead form, their lifeless corpse, and not their living and revitalizing content” (III, 32-33). “Having penetrated into the educational ideas of Western nations,” noted Ushinsky, “we will also see that we often want to instill in us something that is not even an idea itself, but only a trace of the history of this or that Western people, which sometimes remained unconsciously” (III, 33) ...
Demanding the creation of a national school and directing the efforts of teachers to disclose national "educational ideas", Ushinsky did not fence off the Russian school and Russian pedagogical science from foreign pedagogical thought. On the contrary, he did his best to scientifically comprehend the real ways and possibilities of enriching Russian pedagogy and schools with the heritage of world pedagogical experience. But the search for sources and means of this enrichment was subordinated to the leading, general idea: the needs of Russian education, Russian school, Russian science became a filter in the complex process of assimilation of pedagogical ideas.
The idea of a nationality of upbringing, comprehensively substantiated by Ushinsky and receiving a great public response in the 60s, was one of the brightest manifestations of the growth of national self-awareness. "Social education," wrote the teacher, "which strengthens and develops the nationality in a person, powerfully contributes to the development of national self-awareness." It exerts "a strong and beneficial influence on the development of society, its language, its literature, its laws, in a word, on its entire history" (II, 162).
Nationality in education is a pedagogical interpretation of the leading social slogan of the era of the fall of serfdom - the idea of serving the people. Ushinsky's demand for the nationality of education, the nationality of the school acted as a demand for the democratization of education, bringing it into line with the interests and needs of the people. School, according to the deep conviction of the teacher, should not only be accessible to the people, the people themselves must govern it. “The people's school,” wrote Ushinsky, “can develop widely and without hindrance only when the very people who need it take care of its development ...” (III, 611).
The final conclusion of Ushinsky on the problem of the nationality of upbringing was clearly formulated in the following words: "Upbringing, created by the people themselves and based on folk principles, has that educational power that is not found in the best systems based on abstract ideas or borrowed from another people." "Only people's education is a living organ in the historical process of people's development." "Education, if it does not want to be powerless, must be popular" (II, 160-161).
The principle of national upbringing was the basis of KD Ushinsky's teaching about the native language as the central subject of school education.
Teaching children their native language, according to Ushinsky, has three goals: the development of that "innate mental ability, which is called the gift of speech"; introduction of children into the conscious possession of the treasures of their native language and explaining to them "the logic of this language, that is, grammatical laws in their logical system." These three goals, noted Ushinsky, “are achieved not one after the other, but jointly” (V, 333). To fully understand the ways and means of achieving them, the teacher must “first understand, well, what is the language of the people we want to teach” (V, 344).
The language of the people, wrote Ushinsky, "was created by the people themselves." This is “the best, never fading and eternally again, blossoming flower of his entire spiritual life ... In the language, the whole people and their entire homeland are spiritualized ... One generation adds up to the treasury of the native word; after another, the fruits of deep heart movements, the fruits of historical events, beliefs, views, traces of past sorrow and lived joy - in a word, the people carefully preserve the entire trace of their spiritual life in the popular word ”(II, 557).
Ushinsky noted that teaching the native language is of particular importance in the construction of the students' outlook on the world. “The native word is precisely that spiritual garment in which all knowledge must be clothed in order to become the true property of human consciousness” (V, 356). Introducing the child into the world of the folk language, the teacher introduces him “into the world of folk thought, folk feeling, folk life, folk spirit” (V, 345), and “the deeper we entered the language of the people, the deeper we entered its character” (II , 561).
KD Ushinsky emphasized that the study of the native language should be one of the main tasks of the school, if this school serves the interests of the people. He decisively defended the language of national minorities, expelled by the autocracy from national schools, and demanded that teaching be carried out in the native language of students. “There is no more unbearable violence,” declared Ushinsky, “like the one that wants to take away from the people the inheritance created by countless generations of their outdated ancestors” (II, 557). Even during his lifetime, Ushinsky's thoughts about his native language acquired an effective social force, finding their expression in the broad national movement for a public school with instruction in his native language, in a movement that embraced all the peoples of Russia.
Equally inextricably fused with the principle of national upbringing, Ushinsky's teaching about labor as the main factor in upbringing. This teaching became a major achievement of Russian pedagogical thought and was subsequently comprehensively developed in Soviet pedagogical science.
The connection between upbringing and the life of the people, according to Ushinsky, should be carried out primarily on the basis of preparing the child for labor activity, on the basis of instilling in children respect for work and the working people, which is the creator of material and spiritual values. “Upbringing,” wrote Ushinsky, “must vigilantly care so that, on the one hand, open the pupil the opportunity to find useful work in the world, and on the other, inspire him with an indefatigable thirst for work” (II, 360 - 361).
On the educational value of labor. Man as a subject of education
KD Ushinsky emphasized that a person develops and forms in labor activity. Labor in his teaching acted as the basis, means and goal of human existence, as a source of moral, mental and physical improvement of man. “Serious and free, favorite work,” wrote Ushinsky, constitutes the meaning of human life, “and one should only wish that this fundamental law of human nature entered the general consciousness” (IX, 513). Education must reveal to the child this law, "must instill in the pupil respect and love for work ... give him the habit of work" (II, 358). He considered the main means of educating industriousness to be the activity of children in educational work, their participation in productive work, as well as the performance of feasible work related to domestic life. All these types of labor should be united by the task: to educate and improve in children the desire for activity, avoiding idleness, since "idleness is the mother of all vices" (II, 342). In the process of educational and labor activity, students must be disciplined, a sense of responsibility for doing their job, strong will and character.
The task of the school is not only in the transfer of knowledge and the development of thinking, it should arouse in the student "a thirst for serious work, without which his life cannot be either worthy or happy." A person has an innate ability - the need for work. But already in childhood, due to various circumstances, this need can either develop or die out. The concern of the school lies in the fact that it is called upon to open its pupil the opportunity to find useful work in the future life. “Upbringing itself, if it desires happiness for a person, should educate him not for happiness, but prepare him for the work of life ... should develop in a person the habit and love of work; it should enable him to find work for himself in life. " And in order for a person to sincerely fall in love with serious work, you need to instill in him a serious look at it. For a person in childhood and adolescence, the main interest in life should be learning.
What is the situation in this respect at school? Often the teacher teaches his pupils to kill time in the classroom, explaining to them without enthusiasm about what they will then find in the book; after all, the teacher does not know other methods that can arouse and maintain the attention of students. The next day, the teacher asks for a lesson from one, two, three students, and the rest consider themselves free from any business. This is how the student learns to do nothing, to spend time thoughtlessly. The teacher should not hope that the student himself will be carried away by the subject, that only an entertaining presentation of it will arouse interest in it. The mentor must remember that his duty is to teach the pupils to mental work, to develop their work habits. Serious, efficient work is always difficult, Ushinsky argues in his article "Labor in its mental and educational meaning" (1860) and offers means that can develop the habit of work.
1. Do not teach the student, but only help him learn. It is necessary for the student to leave as much work as he is able to overcome, and the mentor should be helped with mastering the subject, given the opportunity to experience the pleasure of his work.
2. Do not strain the child's strength in mental work. But also do not let them fall asleep. Mental work is hard, dreaming is easy and pleasant, but thinking is difficult. A student is better prepared to sit for hours without thinking over the same page or memorize it than to think seriously for even a few minutes. Hence, it is necessary to accustom him to mental labor.
3. To accustom to work gradually. In order for a student to be able to endure mental work easily and without harm to health, one must act carefully, gradually increase the load, accustoming him to mental efforts. Along with the habit of work, love for it and a thirst for work will appear.
4. Change types of work. The rest from mental labor does not consist at all in doing nothing, but in changing the matter. Physical labor is pleasant after mental labor; therefore cleaning classrooms, gardening, turning, bookbinding, and so on. will bring both material benefit and will serve as a rest. In childhood, such a change in activity is play.
"Man as a subject of education" - this is how KD Ushinsky titled his capital pedagogical treatise, the main work of his life. This title, as in a mirror, reflected the main direction of his scientific searches: the desire to reveal the laws of human development, to explain the laws of upbringing itself as a conscious management of this development. Lapidarily and clearly defined Ushinsky in the title of his book the essence of pedagogical activity, the central object of pedagogical science.
KD Ushinsky understood pedagogy as the theory of education. He defined upbringing as a purposeful process of the formation of "a person in a person", the formation of a personality under the guidance of an educator.
KD Ushinsky believed that upbringing has its own objective laws, the knowledge of which is necessary for the teacher in order for him to be able to rationally carry out his activities. But in order to know these laws and conform to them, one must first of all study the very subject of upbringing: “If pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must first know him in all respects too” (VIII, 23).
Pedagogical science, KD Ushinsky noted, cannot exist and develop in isolation from other sciences, “from which it will learn the knowledge of the means it needs to achieve its goals” (VIII, 22). “We remain firmly convinced,” he wrote, “that the great art of upbringing has hardly just begun ... Reading physiology, on every page we are convinced of the vast possibility of acting on the physical development of the individual, and even more on the consistent development of the human race. From this source, which is just opening, education almost did not draw yet. Reconsidering mental facts ... we are amazed at the almost wider possibility of having a tremendous influence on the development of the mind, feeling and will in a person, and in the same way we are amazed at the insignificance of that share of this opportunity that education has already taken advantage of ”(VIII, 36).
KD Ushinsky demanded that learning from the very beginning be separated from the game and aimed at the students' fulfillment of a specific serious task. “I advise,” he wrote, “to start learning a little later and assign as little time as possible for it first; but from the very first time to separate from the game and make it a serious responsibility for the child. Of course, you can teach your child to read and write playfully, but I think this is harmful because the longer you protect the child from serious activities, the more difficult it will be for him to move to them later. To make a serious occupation entertaining for a child — that is the task of the initial teaching ”(VI, 251). At the same time, Ushinsky emphasized that only such training will be beneficial and achieve its goal, which is built taking into account the interests and capabilities of children.
KD Ushinsky believed that teaching can fulfill its educational and upbringing tasks only if three conditions are met: if, firstly, it is connected with life; secondly, it will be built in accordance with the nature of the child; and, finally, thirdly, if the teaching is conducted in the native language of the students.
The entire didactic teaching of Ushinsky is permeated with the statement that “the child should not be introduced to the curiosities and wonders of science at school, but, on the contrary, should teach him to find something entertaining in what is constantly and everywhere surrounds him, and thereby show him in practice the connection between science and life ”(V, 27). Leading a tireless struggle against the isolation of school and education from life, from the interests of the people, Ushinsky, using the example of classical gymnasiums (where the teaching of classical languages was highlighted to the detriment of all other subjects of the school course), revealed the inconsistency and anti-popular nature of the education system that existed in his time. He considered it necessary that each academic subject, along with enriching the memory of students with real knowledge, teach them to use this knowledge in life.
No teaching, according to KD Ushinsky, will never achieve its goal if it does not conform to human nature. “A teacher,” he wrote, “must first of all learn from nature and deduce rules for the school from the observed phenomenon of a child’s life.”
Conformity to nature and learning design
§1 The principle of conformity to nature
KD Ushinsky strove to build the learning process in accordance with the nature and development of children. He saw the first condition of this correspondence in the timely beginning of training. “If you start teaching a child in general before he is ripe for learning,” wrote Ushinsky, “or teach him some subject, the content of which is not his age, then you will inevitably encounter obstacles in his nature that can be overcome just one time. And the more persistently you fight these obstacles of age, the more you will harm your student ”(VI, 244 - 245).
KD Ushinsky considered the promotion of the free development of children's abilities, taking into account the specific features of this development at different age levels, as well as "the absence of excessive tension and excessive ease" in teaching, no less important condition for nature-oriented education. And finally, as another condition, he put forward the demand for a constant complication of educational work in the process of the general growth and development of students, but in order not to strain the child's strength, not to delay his development and at the same time not to allow these forces to weaken, "say fall asleep with them. " To implement the principle of conformity to nature, Ushinsky considered it necessary to build training in accordance with the data of psychology, physiology and human anatomy. In his work "Man as a subject of education," he gave a scientific basis for the educational system, created on the basis of taking into account the laws of the psychophysical development of children. Ushinsky sought to help the teacher, educator in the study of these patterns, in the study of the nature of the child. Education and upbringing, he stressed, will only be effective and rational when the teacher is able to scientifically manage the development and formation of the personality.
KD Ushinsky considered taking into account the psychological characteristics of the child the most important condition for the correct construction of all educational work. The regularity of teaching, he pointed out, although it is a pedagogical regularity, has and cannot but have its own specific psychological nature, which must be taken into account when establishing the principles of teaching. Psychology in relation to its applicability to pedagogy and its necessity for a teacher, in his opinion, ranks first among all sciences.
§2 On the education of attention, will, memory, emotions
KD Ushinsky expressed many interesting thoughts about the methods of education, attention, will, memory, emotions. “Attention is the only door of our soul through which everything from the external world that only enters into consciousness, without fail passes; consequently, not a single word of teaching cannot escape this door, otherwise it will not enter the soul of the child. It is clear that teaching a child to keep these doors open is a matter of the first importance, on the success of which the success of the whole teaching is based ”(VI, 291). But attention is not only a necessary condition for learning, it also represents the subject of education. "To develop in a student attention to scientific subjects means to pave him a wide and easy road to learning" (II, 217). With active attention, it is no longer the subject that owns the person, but the person - the subject; therefore, training must constantly rely on the active attention of students.
If attention is the "door" through which external impressions enter our consciousness, then memory retains what has already been perceived once. Ushinsky emphasized the need for a teacher to deeply study the processes of memory in children and the patterns of its development in the course of training. He especially drew the attention of teachers to the importance of understanding the essence of both logical and mechanical memory and their importance for the lasting assimilation of knowledge and skills by children. Before offering students to memorize the material, Ushinsky wrote, it is necessary to awaken in them the consciousness of the need to memorize, that is, one must strive to ensure that the act of memorization is preceded by an awareness of the goal of memorizing. Ushinsky especially emphasized the need to instill in every student confidence in his memory. “A child insecure in his memory,” he wrote, “is accustomed to knowing that he forgets, easily abandons the efforts of remembering and thereby makes the facts acquired by her be erased in memory” (VIII, 395).
But the learning process is not only a process of perception and memorization. Ushinsky understood well that without the movement of thought, revealing the existing connections between individual facts and phenomena, there could be no talk of learning in general and of conscious memorization in particular. Both in general psychological terms, and especially from the point of view of educational psychology, Ushinsky touched upon the main aspects of the psychology of thinking and gave many valuable instructions on the construction of teaching, taking into account the psychological laws of thinking processes. KD Ushinsky emphasized that, starting from the very first year of study, special attention should be paid to the gradual development of the ability of logical thinking in children. He recommended teaching children to find similarities and differences between objects, to teach them to analyze, synthesis, generalization, induction, deduction and other forms of judgment. According to Ushinsky, teachers of each academic discipline at all levels of education should pay attention to this logical side of education.
§3 Two stages of the learning process
Education, according to Ushinsky, goes through two main stages. The first one is divided into three stages. At the first stage, under the guidance of a teacher, children experience vivid perception of objects or phenomena of the surrounding world; in the second stage, the students, guided by the teacher, compare and contrast the perceived images and in this way develop preliminary concepts; at the third stage, the teacher gives an additional explanation of these concepts, the main is separated from the secondary, and the knowledge gained is brought into the system. The second stage of the learning process begins with the teacher's generalization of the material presented to him (with the participation of the students themselves), and the corresponding work is carried out to consolidate the knowledge and skills acquired.
Ushinsky's deep understanding of the nature and laws of the learning process was clearly manifested not only in highlighting the indicated most important stages of this process, but also in his teaching on didactic principles, which Ushinsky called "the necessary conditions for teaching." He considered these "necessary conditions": the consciousness and activity of students in the learning process (clarity, independence of the student); visibility in training; consistency (gradualness); accessibility (absence of excessive tension and excessive lightness) and the strength of students' knowledge and skills (firmness of assimilation).
§4 Methodological sequence of training
KD Ushinsky put forward a number of provisions on the construction of teaching in a certain methodological sequence, the basis of which were unshakable pedagogical formulas: "from the concrete to the abstract", "from the familiar to the unfamiliar", "from the simple to the complex", "from the particular - to the general, and vice versa ”, etc. Noting that“ the most logical course of development leads us to begin with concrete phenomena and then move on to abstractions ”(II, 225), Ushinsky wrote:“ True pedagogy. .. gives students first material and as this material accumulates, brings it into the system. The more and more diverse the material accumulates, the higher the system becomes and, finally, reaches the point of abstraction of logical and philosophical propositions ”(V, 355).
The implementation of consistency in teaching cannot be achieved in isolation not only from the principle of consciousness and activity, but also from the principles of visibility and strength of assimilation of knowledge and skills.
Visual teaching, according to Ushinsky, is a kind of teaching that is based not on abstract ideas and words, but on specific images directly perceived by the child: whether these images will be perceived during the teaching itself under the guidance of a mentor, or before the independent observation of the child, so that the mentor finds a ready-made image in the child's soul and builds the teaching on it. This course of learning from the concrete to the abstract, from representation to thought is so natural and is based on such clear psychic laws that only those who generally reject the need to conform in teaching with the requirements of human nature in general and of children in particular, can reject its necessity "(VI, 265-266).
§5 Visual teaching
Ushinsky considered natural objects, models, drawings and other visual aids, displaying things or phenomena, to be the main means of visual teaching. The degree of use of these means should be determined by the age of the students, the specifics of the academic subject and the specific teaching material. According to Ushinsky, the younger the students are, the more they should resort to visual teaching.
KD Ushinsky considered the degree of strength of these knowledge and skills to be one of the most basic indicators of the usefulness of knowledge and skills and, consequently, the quality of education. He saw the main means for developing solid knowledge in students primarily in repetitions and exercises. Ushinsky waged a decisive struggle against the scholastic-dogmatic formulation of repetitions and exercises, against cramming and drill, aimed at emasculating any independent thought in children, drowning their abilities, initiative and creative initiative.
The most important requirement for repetitions, first put forward in its entirety by KD Ushinsky, was that any repetition, first of all, should pursue the goal not of reproducing something already forgotten in memory, but of preventing oblivion. “An educator who understands the nature of memory,” he wrote, “will incessantly resort to repetitions, not in order to repair the collapsed one, but in order to strengthen the building and bring out a new floor on it” (X, 425).
KD Ushinsky substantiated the principle of the so-called passing repetition, when each subsequent part of the educational material in different combinations contains the main, key moments of the passed. According to this principle, all Ushinsky's textbooks are compiled, in which every new letter, every new word, every sentence and even individual elements of stories or poems are repeated evenly and given in different combinations and combinations. This purposeful passing repetition is aimed at ensuring that students fully master the knowledge and can freely operate with it.
KD Ushinsky distinguished two types of repetitions and exercises - passive and active. Passive repetition, in his opinion, “consists in the fact that the student again perceives what he already perceived before; he sees what he has already seen, hears what he has already heard. " With active repetition, “the student independently, without perceiving impressions from the external world, reproduces in himself the traces of the ideas he had perceived before” (X, 425). Ushinsky gave preference to the active type of repetition, considering it the leading one. Deeply substantiating its advantages, Ushinsky wrote: “Active repetition is much more effective than passive, and capable children instinctively prefer it to the first: after reading the lesson, they close the book and try to recite it from memory. The great power of active repetition, in comparison with passive repetition, lies in concentration of attention. You can read a page ten times without attention and not remember; but you can never say this page without focusing on what you are saying, if not on the very connection of the content, then on the connection of words, lines, letters ”(X, 425).
Ushinsky as a supporter of the classroom system
§1 Classroom-lesson system
KD Ushinsky was a supporter of the classroom system of organizing lessons at school. He considered the necessary conditions for any rational teaching: 1) the class as the basic unit, the main link of the school; 2) a solid, unchanging composition of students in the class; 3) classes strictly regulated in time, conducted according to a firm curriculum; 4) frontal classes of the teacher with the whole class, taking into account the specific characteristics of each student; 5) a combination of frontal forms of students' lessons with individual ones based on the teacher's use of active learning methods; 6) the leading role of the teacher during the lesson.
The main thing in Ushinsky's teaching about the lesson is that he determined the organizational structure of the lesson and established its individual types. Depending on the purpose of the lesson, in one case, the explanation of the new becomes more important, with the subordination of all other elements to this task; in another, the main task is to consolidate, all the other elements obey it; in the third case, the development of writing, skills, etc. determines the entire course of the lesson; in the fourth, the main goal of the lesson is to in-depth clarification of the knowledge of students.
For elementary school, Ushinsky considered it necessary to combine these types of lessons in one so-called combined lesson. In general, according to Ushinsky, a lesson reaches its goal only when it is given a certain, strictly considered direction and a variety of teaching methods are correctly used.
Dividing didactics into two parts, general and particular, Ushinsky believed that the first, or general didactics, studies the fundamental principles and forms of teaching; the second, private didactics, is the application of the foundations of general didactics to individual academic disciplines and studies the methods of teaching them. But, noted Ushinsky, “didactics cannot even claim to list all the rules and methods of teaching. She only points out the most important rules and the most outstanding techniques. Their practical application is infinitely varied and depends on the mentor himself. No didactics and no textbook can replace a mentor: they only make his work easier ”(VII, 337). Ushinsky considered the methodological skill of the teacher to be the decisive condition for the high-quality construction of the entire learning process.
§2 Teaching and learning methods
KD Ushinsky singled out "two main methods of teaching and learning: 1) synthetic method, 2) analytical." He subdivided the methods of oral presentation into: “1) The method is dogmatic, or suggesting. 2) Reception Socratic, or asking. 3) Reception heuristic, or giving tasks. 4) Acroamatic technique, or expounding ”(X, 42). Along with these techniques, Ushinsky attached particular importance to such methods as laboratory-practical work, oral and written exercises, work on a book, etc.
KD Ushinsky considered the Socratic method "the best way to translate mechanical combinations into rational ones for all ages, and especially for children." However, he emphasized that this method does not serve to convey the new, as some teachers mistakenly believed, but only for "a clearer explanation, interpretation of what has already been explained." “In the Socratic method, as a matter of fact, no new series and groups of representations are given, but already existing series and groups are brought into a new rational system,” wrote Ushinsky (X, 421). The effectiveness of this method depends on how correctly the teacher formulates the questions, in what sequence he asks them to the students, to what extent the whole class participates in this work, and, finally, on how the teacher reacts to the students' answers.
Of all the methods of oral presentation of the acroamatic type, KD Ushinsky attached exceptionally great importance to the method of storytelling. Through a story, this continuous monologue presentation of the material, the teacher transfers to the students mainly new knowledge.
The correct application of this method and, consequently, its effectiveness are primarily determined by the content of the story, language, presentation form, compliance of the presentation with the level of development of students and its correct alternation with other methods. “A masterfully led story, where main idea protrudes far ahead, and the secondary naturally becomes attached to it, where there are moments of rest for the child - such a story cuts easily into the child's soul and just as easily reproduces it, ”wrote Ushinsky.
KD Ushinsky considered home school work of students to be one of the main forms of independent work. “Without home lessons,” he said, “learning can only move forward very slowly” (III, 156). “... I think that children of ten years of age should already be taught to serious work, commensurate, of course, with their strength and with their understanding” (V, 26).
K.D. Ushinsky paid special attention to the correct dosage homework in accordance with the specifics of the content of the educational material and with the level of development of children. Criticizing the old school, which used homework without taking these features into account and turned tasks into a means of meaningless cramming, Ushinsky demanded that homework be based on a complete understanding of the students in school of what they should learn and master, and not memorize at home. At the same time, he demanded that home "lessons" be given to children only after they have already acquired some skills of independent work under the direct supervision of a teacher in classroom conditions.
§3 Didactics. Ushinsky's educational books "Native Word" and "Children's World"
The general didactics of Ushinsky, built in accordance with his epistemological views, has as its source pedagogical experience and the achievements of individual methods. But at the same time, it itself serves as the basis of teaching methods for various academic disciplines, that is, the basis for the construction of private didactics.
The best example of such a relationship between didactics and methods is the harmonious theories of Ushinsky's initial training, in particular, the methodology of teaching his native language, developed in his wonderful "Guides" to teaching in the "Mother Word" and practically implemented in the educational books "Mother Word" and "Children's World ".
These classic educational books of the Russian elementary school vividly embodied pedagogical concept Ushinsky. The idea of a national upbringing permeated his textbooks; from the standpoint of the nationality, they covered all the facts and phenomena of nature and society. The secular nature of "Rodnoye Slovo" and "Children's World" reflected the materialistic tendency of Ushinsky's world outlook. The content of educational books introduced the latest achievements of that time in various fields of knowledge, especially the natural sciences.
KD Ushinsky's textbooks gave practical expression to the fundamental requirements of his didactics, such as the connection between learning and life, combining the tasks of material and formal education, the principles of upbringing education, taking into account the psychological characteristics of children, etc. world ”served as a source of initial knowledge of students about nature and man, about the role and significance of labor, a source of their acquaintance with various types of labor activity. Textbooks instilled in children a love for work and workers, awakened the desire for work.
The leading didactic principles of KD Ushinsky are consistently and with great skill embodied in "Rodnoye Slovo" and "Children's World". The material of the textbooks is selected and arranged in such a way as to encourage students to independently solve difficult, but feasible tasks, so that “the child gradually moves from simple phenomena to complex phenomena” (VII, 252), so that the teaching is thorough and at the same time appropriate to the child's age.
With the same completeness, KD Ushinsky implemented in his textbooks the idea of a sound analytical-synthetic method of teaching literacy, which was a real revolution in the system of primary education.
The scholastic system of teaching literacy according to the letter-subjunctive method that existed before Ushinsky not only made it difficult to acquire reading and writing skills, but, in Ushinsky's opinion, was a system of fencing off, isolating the broad masses of the people from culture, an obstacle to their education. The sound method contributed to the democratization of education, making it possible for each child, without much stress, to quickly, consciously and thoroughly master the skills of reading and writing. The most important value of the sound method, in the words of Ushinsky, was that it promoted "the mental development of the child, while the previous [method] stopped and slowed down this development" (VI, 270).
The high scientific and methodological level of KD Ushinsky's textbooks, their secular-realistic direction made them the best textbooks of their time, deserving nationwide recognition. The words of Yu. S. Rekhnevsky, a well-known publicist and friend of KD Ushinsky, who wrote in 1871 that "Native Word" and "Children's World" will occupy the same place in the history of education as "The World in Pictures "Ya. A. Komensky. For over 50 years, Rodnoe Slovo has been an indispensable textbook for the Russian elementary school and has been published almost 140 times in thousands of copies.
Representatives of the progressive pedagogy of non-Russian peoples who are part of the Russian Empire gave a high assessment to Rodnoy Slovo. The classic of Georgian pedagogy, a follower of Ushinsky - Yakov Gogebashvi-li considered "Native Word" "a most talented creation", an unsurpassed textbook of the native language for elementary schools.
The attitude of the representatives of official pedagogy and the heads of the education department to the "Mother Word" and "Children's World" was completely different. Members of the Special Department of the Scientific Committee of the Ministry of Public Education A. Filonov, A. Radonezhsky and others sharply opposed Ushinsky's textbooks, accusing the author of atheism and unreliability. After the death of Ushinsky, the reactionaries, with the direct support of the Minister of Public Education ID Delyanov, succeeded in 1885 with the withdrawal of "Rodnoye Slovo" from use in gymnasiums and district schools. Earlier, in 1867, the same fate befell Detsky Mir, which was excluded by the ministry from the lists of manuals recommended for educational institutions.
However, despite the prohibitions and all kinds of obstacles, KD Ushinsky's textbooks confidently made their way to the public school. And one of the main reasons for their success was the realistic direction and democratic content of these books.
Education issues
§1 Ushinsky about education
KD Ushinsky devoted exclusive attention in his writings to issues of upbringing. He never separated education from upbringing. On the contrary, he spoke of their unity, emphasizing that educational tasks are more important "than developing the mind in general, filling the head with knowledge" (II, 431).
KD Ushinsky believed that all school activities should be subordinated to educational tasks. "Why is upbringing, if it does not affect the moral and mental development of a person? .. - he wrote. - Why teach history, literature, all the many sciences, if this teaching does not make us fall in love with the idea and truth?" (II, 22-23). “Only a person who has a good mind and a good heart is a completely good and reliable person” (IX, 122).
Education, wrote Ushinsky, should develop in students such qualities as love for the homeland, humanity, hard work, truthfulness, a sense of responsibility, discipline, aesthetic feeling, strong will and strong character. He considered all these qualities not as isolated and independently developing objects of upbringing, but as sides of a single upbringing process, which in this process, as well as in reality, intertwine with each other and condition each other.
§2 The role of patriotic education
Proceeding from the principle of national upbringing, KD Ushinsky considered patriotic feeling to be the highest, most powerful feeling in a person, a “social cement” that “binds people into an honest, friendly society” (II, 431). “As there is no man without pride,” he wrote, “so there is no man without love for the fatherland, and this love gives upbringing the right key to the heart of a person ...” (II, 160).
A patriot, according to Ushinsky, is a person who subordinates all his personal interests to the interests of the fatherland and the people, giving all his strength and knowledge for the good of the motherland. “We consider expressions of patriotism also those manifestations of love for the homeland, which are expressed not only in battles with external enemies: expressing a bold word of truth is sometimes much more dangerous than putting your forehead under an enemy bullet, which, perhaps, will fly by,” wrote Ushinsky (II , 474).
Exposing the ostentatious patriotism of representatives of the privileged classes, he argued that only the working people are the true defender of the homeland, all its benefits and achievements, the bearer of the highest human quality - humanism.
KD Ushinsky considered the main task of the school to instill in students high feelings of love and devotion to the people. In this regard, he attached great importance to the study of national history - the history of the people, their life and struggle in the past and present, the study of their native language, literature and especially folklore. Ushinsky wrote that from the lips of the working people “a wonderful folk song is pouring, from which the poet, the artist, and the musician draw their inspiration; a well-aimed, deep word is heard, into which, with the help of science and highly developed thought, the philologist and the philosopher ponder and are amazed at the depth and truth of this word ... ”(II, 555).
The content of the stories, poems, articles and proverbs contained in Ushinsky's textbooks reflects the heroic history and working life of the Russian people. Emphasizing the meaning folk proverbs, Ushinsky wrote: “In terms of content, our proverbs are important for initial training in that they, like in a mirror, reflected Russian folk life with all its pictorial features. folk proverbs. They reflected all aspects of the life of the people ”(VI, 298).
§3 The principle of humane education
KD Ushinsky strove to establish the principles of humane education at school. He wrote: "Education should enlighten the consciousness of a person, so that the road of good lies clearly before his eyes" (II, 159). Ushinsky repeatedly pointed out the need for such a formulation of education and upbringing in order from the very beginning to develop in children feelings of disinterestedness, modesty and a humane attitude towards a person's personality, without distinction of race or nationality. One of the main tasks of humane education, according to Ushinsky, is the development of high moral qualities in a person - honesty, justice, truthfulness, sincerity.
Deeply believing in the child's capabilities and respecting his personality, KD Ushinsky rejected the Herbart theory of upbringing, based on suppression, on breaking the will of children. “In order to develop the will,” he wrote, “it is necessary to give it exercise and direct these exercises so that the feeling of victory over obstacles is not suppressed by the feeling of failure. In the very striving of a person for perfection lies the guarantee that success will cheer him up ... Will grows stronger from activity. "Breaking the will" just because it is the will of the child, and not the mentor, is the greatest madness "(X, 168).
KD Ushinsky paid serious attention to the upbringing of aesthetic feeling, emphasizing the importance for this purpose of fiction, music, fine arts, and especially nature. "It is strange that the educational influence of nature, which everyone has more or less experienced on himself ..." he wrote, "is so little appreciated in pedagogy" (XI, 56). Ushinsky strove to educate children in the ability to feel, experience, enjoy beauty. “In any science,” he noted, “there is more or less an aesthetic element, the transmission of which to the students should be borne in mind by the mentor” (X, 609). Not only the content, but also the form of training and education should develop a feeling of love for beauty.
§4 Methodology of moral education. Punishments and rewards. A person is a subject of education.
KD Ushinsky expressed many valuable thoughts on the methods of moral education. Pointing to the need to cultivate a conscious discipline, he sharply criticized the school of his day, in which “discipline was based on the most unnatural principle - on the fear of the teacher distributing rewards and punishments. “This fear,” wrote Ushinsky, “forced children not only to an unusual, but also harmful position for them: immobility, class boredom and hypocrisy” (VI, 258).
All school teaching and all school life, the teacher noted, should be imbued with a rational and moral principle. “At school, seriousness should reign, allowing a joke, but not turning the whole thing into a joke, gentleness without sugary, justice without pickiness, kindness without weakness, order without pedantry and, most importantly, constant rational activity. Then good feelings and aspirations will develop by themselves in children, and the beginnings of bad inclinations, acquired, perhaps, before, will gradually be blotted out ”(VI, 259).
KD Ushinsky considered persuasion to be one of the main means of pedagogical influence. But this tool, he wrote, turns out to be effective only when the teacher enjoys authority among the children, when a close, trusting relationship has been established between him and the students. If the educator is in "official relations with children", then it is not surprising that all his educational influence "is expressed only in restrictions, constraints, prohibitions and external discipline that facilitates his work" (II, 529-530). KD Ushinsky has repeatedly emphasized that the method of persuasion cannot be reduced only to "moral precepts." It is not only the word that convinces, it is the teacher's personal example and the moral experience that the child acquires. "In vain would we expect," he noted, "for judgments and moral admonitions to destroy evil inclination." It is necessary to create "first the material of morality, and then sow its rules" (X, 593). "As for moral maxims, they are almost even worse than punishments ... By teaching children to listen to lofty words of morality, the meaning of which is not understood, and most importantly, not felt by children, you are preparing hypocrites ..." - wrote Ushinsky (VI, 260).
Ushinsky gave a peculiar solution to the problem of rewards and punishments. The teacher believed that if the school and the family reasonably organize the entire process of teaching and upbringing of children, then the question of punishment and other "curing" measures will never be acute for them. "Encouragements and punishments, - wrote he, - already not harmless hygienic means that prevent illness or cure it by a correct normal life and activity, but drugs that displace illness from the body with another disease. The less a school or family needs these, sometimes necessary, but always medicinal and therefore poisonous, the better ”(VI, 259).
KD Ushinsky opposed all kinds of measures that negatively affect the pride of students. He especially emphasized the harmful consequences of the artificial incitement of rivalry among children, considering this an anti-pedagogical measure. “A teacher should never praise a child in comparison with others, but only in comparison with his own previous imperfection, or, even better, in comparison with the norm of the perfection that is achieved,” he wrote (X, 321).
Of all the measures of punishment, KD Ushinsky considered the most acceptable warning, reprimand, low assessment of behavior. At the same time, he emphasized that it is especially important to observe pedagogical tact and an attitude towards the child that would not offend his personality in the eyes of the entire team.
Ushinsky also very carefully approached the incentive measures. Recognizing the material awards of students as anti-pedagogical, he attached great importance to moral encouragement in the matter of moral education. "Children," he wrote, "hate teachers, from whom you can never get approval or recognition of what is well done ... This kills the pursuit of excellence." Ushinsky demanded that every teacher be attentive to the activities of students, recognition of their successes in order to develop in children an indefatigable thirst to go forward, to make this thirst a natural need for every child, a quality of his personality.
Man is a subject of education. His educators are family, school, people, nature, life in general. Among these factors of upbringing, the leading role, according to Ushinsky, belongs to the school. At school, in this “organism of social education, everyone has a job assigned to him; but the most important member in this organism is without doubt the teacher. " “Much, of course,” wrote Ushinsky, “means the spirit of the establishment; but this spirit does not live within walls, not on paper: but in the character of the majority of educators, and from there it already passes into the character of the pupils ”(II, 28, 29). In upbringing, he emphasized, everything should be based on the personality of the mentor, because the upbringing force is poured out only from the living source of the human personality. No statutes, programs, no organizational forms, no matter how cleverly they were invented, can replace the influence of the teacher's personality in the matter of education.
People's teacher. His activities and basic qualities
At the very beginning of his teaching career, KD Ushinsky in a number of articles shows that "the most significant shortcoming in the work of Russian public education is the lack of good mentors specially trained to perform their duties."
The concept of "folk teacher" in the professional sense was absent, since there was no folk school as a type of mass educational institution. the teachers of a few non-native schools worked as sextons, sextons, retired soldiers, that is, people who did not have sufficient general, and even more so, pedagogical education.
In the article "On the Benefits of Pedagogical Literature" (1857) K, D. Ushinsky makes an attempt to raise the authority of the teacher, to show his enormous social role. It presented a vivid image of the people's teacher and formulated the basic requirements for him.
In accordance with the idea of the nationality of upbringing, the first and main condition for the fruitful activity of the teacher KD Ushinsky considered his proximity to the aspirations and interests of the people. “The desire of the peasant,” he wrote, “to have in his school a real teacher, and not a priest, is only a typical expression of completely correct and practical thought” (III, 616). “First of all and above all,” Ushinsky emphasized, “our national education needs people capable of this great work; really came out of the environment of the people, took with them its best, characteristic properties ... ”(II, 487).
Speaking about the qualities of a teacher, Ushinsky noted that a teacher should be not only a teacher, but above all an educator. “In a teacher of a secondary educational institution,” he wrote, “knowledge of the subject is far from being the main merit. Is it difficult to know any one subject within the grammar school course? Is it difficult to know three, four such subjects, studying them exclusively for a year or two? But the main merit of a gymnasium teacher is that he knows how to educate students with his subject ”(II, 66).
KD Ushinsky considered unacceptable such a system of class teachers, in which the teacher is engaged only in teaching, and the teacher, being in the class with him, only observes the order in the lesson. Attaching extremely great importance to the unity in the approach to children of the school administration, the class teacher and the teacher, KD Ushinsky assigned the decisive, leading role in the upbringing of students to the teacher. The personal example of the teacher, he wrote, “is a fruitful ray of the sun for a young soul, which cannot be replaced by anything” (II, 532).
The teacher, according to the deep conviction of KD Ushinsky, must love his profession, with a sense of responsibility relate to the “high vocation of a teacher”, to pedagogical work, on which the future of the people and the happiness of the motherland largely depend. He must be educated, knowledgeable, always interested in improving his knowledge and teaching skills; must have a pedagogical tact, clearly represent the goals of their activities. Otherwise, the educator, no matter how he studies the theory of pedagogy, will never a good teacher... “By entrusting to education the pure and impressionable souls of children, entrusting in order for it to draw the first and therefore the deepest features in them, we have every right to ask the educator what goal he will pursue in his activities, and demand a clear and categorical answer to this question ", - wrote Ushinsky (VIII, 19).
KD Ushinsky has repeatedly noted that a teacher needs a deep knowledge of psychology. He emphasized that a teacher, by the very essence of his work, cannot but be a psychologist. The teacher, wrote Ushinsky, studies the child, his abilities, inclinations, merits and demerits, notices the development of his mind and guides this development, gives direction to the pupil's will, forms character, that is, "rotates every minute in the field of psychological phenomena." A teacher, Ushinsky said, “must learn a lot to understand the soul in its phenomena and think a lot about the goal, subject and means of educational art, before becoming a practitioner” (II, 25-26).
Developing the problem of teacher training, KD Ushinsky examines the role of women in the upbringing and education of children. He spoke up in defense of women teachers, who, in his opinion, can be “not only excellent teachers in the lower grades, but also exemplary teachers in higher grades, and, moreover, teachers of such subjects as, for example, chemistry, physics, higher geometry etc.".
Ushinsky emphasizes that the teacher should not be limited by the knowledge gained. It is very important to develop in the teacher the ability and readiness to constantly expand his scientific and pedagogical horizons. A teacher teaches successfully as long as he learns himself.
KD Ushinsky set three tasks for the pedagogical faculties: 1) the development of sciences that comprehensively study a person "with a special application to the art of education"; 2) training of well-educated teachers; 3) dissemination of pedagogical knowledge and beliefs among teachers and the public. Along with the fulfillment of these tasks, pedagogical faculties should provide teachers with highly qualified personnel to teacher institutes and seminaries.
Conclusion
The importance of KD Ushinsky in the development of the national school and pedagogy is great. His name is associated with the creation of a Russian folk school and the formalization of pedagogy as a science in Russia. His classic works "Man as a Subject of Education", "Native Word", "Children's World" and many other works received widespread fame and entered the golden fund of Russian and world pedagogical literature.
Ushinsky's work fully met the urgent needs of transforming the education system in Russia, was subordinated to the solution of the main social and pedagogical tasks of the era. “To do as much benefit as possible for my fatherland is the only goal of my life,” wrote Ushinsky, “and towards it I must direct all my abilities” (XI, 43). These words are the whole meaning of the activities and creativity of the great teacher.
Already contemporaries appreciated Ushinsky as an outstanding "fighter for the Russian school", whose activities "have always been distinguished by the depth of conviction and special passion." “Such and such people,” V. Ya. Stoyunin wrote about Ushinsky, “are pushing public affairs forward; they revive what had been frozen before them, they show others the way; they give rise to new forces for action. "
The name of Ushinsky was the banner of the leading teachers not only of the Russian, but also of the Ukrainian, Georgian, Azeri, Armenian and other peoples of Russia in their struggle against the dominant system of education and upbringing, for the construction of a new folk school. However, in the conditions of autocratic Russia, the ideas of the great Russian teacher could not be realized. "More than half of what he said," one of the leaders of public education stated in 1916, "was not used by the Russian school."
KD Ushinsky's pedagogical ideas were widely embodied in the practice of the Soviet school and were creatively developed in Soviet pedagogy. They have become the property of millions of Soviet people, the property of the new socialist culture.
The pedagogical heritage of KD Ushinsky was effective and modern in the second half of the 20th century. It is not only a "legacy", but one of the active factors in improving the work of education. Acquaintance with the work of K. D. Ushinsky, wrote N. K. Krupskaya, “acquaintance with his works, so simple, clear, their analysis will give the teacher currents in modern pedagogy ”.
List of used literature:
1. KD Ushinsky / Selected pedagogical works in two volumes / Edited by AI Piskunov, GS Kostyuk, DO Lordkipanidze, MF Shabaeva. - M. "Pedagogy", 1974
2. Sychev-Mikhailov M.V. From the history of the Russian school and pedagogy XVIII. - M. 1960.
3. History of pedagogy (History of education and pedagogical thought) / Textbook. Benefit. - M .: Gardariki, 2003
4. KD Ushinsky. Collected composed., in 10 volumes. M.-L., 1952, p. 182
L.N. Modzalevsky. About the nationality of upbringing. According to Ushinsky. "In memory of KD Ushinsky". SPb., 1869, p. 162
N.G. Chernyshevsky Full. collection composed, vol. III. M., 1947, p. 183
N.G. Chernyshevsky Full. collection composed, vol. III. M., 1947, p.302
L. Feuerbach. Fav. philosopher. Prod., Vol. II. M., 1955
KD Ushinsky. Collected Sochin., t.10 M.-L., 1952, p. 182. Further references to this edition are given in the text, in brackets the volume is indicated in Roman numerals, and the page in Arabic.
L.N. Modzalevsky. To the biography of K.D. Ushinsky. About his biographical sketch. Gas. "Caucasus", 1881, No. 274, 281
V.Ya. Stoyunin. Fav. ped. op. M., 1954, p. 149.
A.P. Medvedkov. A Brief History of Russian Pedagogy in Cultural and Historical Illumination. Pg., 1916, p. 114.
The form, however, the content of his ideas about the upbringing and education of a person is firmly entrenched in the modern educational system. Conclusion In this term paper, relying on sources, as well as on pedagogical literature, the question of the implementation of the leading ideas of KD Ushinsky was considered on the basis of an examination of his pedagogical heritage. To fully disclose this topic, in all of it ...
Including the role of educational literature. 3. To study the reflection of his views in the books "Native Word", "Children's World" as well as in the main articles written by him on the role of educational books. 4. Significance of Ushinsky's works for pedagogy and practice of primary education. Short biography. Ushinsky Konstantin Dmitrievich (1824 - 1870) - a famous Russian teacher; was born in Novgorod-Seversk; v...
After graduating from the Novgorod-Seversk gymnasium, Ushinsky entered Moscow University at the Faculty of Law, which he graduated brilliantly in 1844, and two years later, at the age of 22, was appointed acting professor of cameral sciences (including the general concept of law, elements of the science of economics , financial law, state law) at the Yaroslavl Legal Lyceum.
However, two years later, Ushinsky's brilliantly started professorship was interrupted: due to the "riots" among the students of the lyceum, he was dismissed from among the professors in 1849 for his progressive convictions.
Ushinsky was then forced to serve as a minor official in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, but the bureaucratic service did not satisfy him. In his diaries, he spoke of the service with disgust. Some satisfaction was given to him by literary work in the magazines Sovremennik and Library for Reading, where he posted translations from English, abstracts of articles, reviews of materials published in foreign journals.
In 1854, Ushinsky managed to get an appointment, first as a teacher, and then as an inspector of the Gatchina Orphanage Institute, where he significantly improved the organization of education and upbringing.
Under the influence of the social pedagogical movement that had begun, Ushinsky in 1857-1858 published several articles in the Journal for Education ("On the Use of Pedagogical Literature", "On the Nationality in public education"," Three elements of the school ", etc.), which glorified his name.
In 1859, Ushinsky was appointed class inspector at the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens. In this institution, closely associated with the royal court, an atmosphere of servility and ingratiation flourished in front of the empress's inner circle, her favorites. The girls were brought up in the spirit of Christian morality and misconceptions about the duties of a wife and mother, they were given very little real knowledge and were more concerned about instilling in them secular manners and admiration for tsarism.
Ushinsky, despite the opposition of reactionary teachers, boldly carried out a reform of the institute, introduced a new curriculum, the main subjects of which made the Russian language, the best works of Russian literature, natural sciences, widely used visualization in teaching, conducted experiments in biology and physics lessons. Ushinsky invited prominent teachers-methodologists as teachers: in literature - V. I. Vodovozov, in geography - D. D. Semyonov, in history - M. I. Semevsky and others. In order to prepare the pupils for useful work, a two-year pedagogical class was introduced in addition to the general education class of seven. At this time, Ushinsky also compiled a reader on the Russian language "Children's World" (1861) in two parts for teaching in the elementary grades, containing a lot of material on natural science.
Ushinsky edited the "Journal of the Ministry of Public Education" in 1860-1861. He completely changed his program, turned a dry and uninteresting official departmental body into a scientific and pedagogical journal.
During these years, Ushinsky published several of his pedagogical articles in the "Journal of the Ministry of Public Education": "Labor in its mental and educational meaning", "Rodnoe Slovo", "Project of the Teachers' Seminary".
Taking advantage of the situation of the onset of reaction, the head of the institute, the priest and the teachers dismissed by Ushinsky intensified the persecution, accused him of godlessness, free thinking and political unreliability. In the summer of 1862, he was dismissed from the Smolny Institute. The tsarist government, in order to disguise the illegal removal of Ushinsky, sent him on a long business trip abroad to study female education abroad. Ushinsky rightly regarded this trip as a disguised exile.
KD Ushinsky abroad studied the state of women's education in a number of countries, the organization of primary education in Switzerland, compiled a wonderful book for classroom reading - "Rodnoe Slovo" (1864-1870) and a methodological guide to it, prepared for publication two volumes of his main psychological and pedagogical essay "Man as a subject of education (Experience of pedagogical anthropology)" (v. 1-2. 1867-1869) and collected materials for the third volume of this large and important scientific work.
Severely ill, feeling that his strength was leaving him, Ushinsky was in a hurry to do as much as possible. After returning to Russia (1867), he did not live long: he died in 1870 at the age of about 47 years. Ushinsky did a lot in his short life. He fulfilled his youthful dream, recorded in his diary: "To do as much benefit as possible for my fatherland is the only goal of my life, and to it I must direct all my abilities."
Philosophical and natural science foundations of the pedagogical system
In his philosophical development, Ushinsky went from idealism to materialism, but this path remained unfinished. Having thoroughly studied various philosophical systems, critically using the positive elements of these systems, he strove to develop his own, independent, original worldview.
In his views on nature, Ushinsky followed the evolutionary teachings of Darwin. In the theory of knowledge and in psychology, he has many materialistic elements. In contrast to the metaphysical speculative abstract systems of psychology, such as Herbart, Ushinsky tried to build psychology on the foundations of physiology. But in sociological issues, he stood on idealistic positions, like most enlighteners, recognizing reason and ideas as the driving force of social development.
Even in his earliest work, in his speech "On Cameral Education", Ushinsky, standing on the positions of materialistic sensationalism, wrote: "The only criterion for a thing is the thing itself, and not our concept of it."
In the second half of the 60s, when, with the onset of reaction, any positive mention of materialism, the slightest expression of sympathy for it was met with hostility and persecution by government circles, Ushinsky courageously declared that materialist philosophy “has contributed and continues to contribute to science and thinking; the art of education, in particular, owes a great deal to the materialistic direction of research that has been prevailing in recent times. "
KD Ushinsky criticizes Kant, Hegel on a number of issues, notes the abstractness and far-fetchedness of Herbart's psychological theory. He, however, did not find a materialist philosophy that satisfied him and believed that materialism "still awaits its Hegel." Ushinsky had a sharply negative attitude to the vulgar materialism, which was quite widespread at that time. He also objected to those philosophers (in particular to Spencer) who believed that as a result of human adaptation to the environment and the development of the human body, human wings would grow in the future. He wrote: "The strength of a man is his steam engines, his speed is steam locomotives and steamers, and the wings are already growing in a man and will unfold when he learns to control the arbitrary movement of balloons." This was said more than half a century before the appearance of the first airplanes.
In his article “Labor in its mental and educational meaning” Ushinsky even rose to the point of stating social contradictions: “the need for large and large capital for any independent production is increasing; the number of independent industries is decreasing; one huge factory swallows up thousands of small ones and turns independent owners into day laborers; one goes crazy with fat; the other runs wild with poverty; wealth destroys one, extreme poverty turns the other into a machine ... " to reveal the cause of these contradictions, did not rise to understand the class structure of society and the class struggle, and could therefore not see the real ways of eliminating these social contradictions.
In the same article, Ushinsky castigates idleness and values labor, points out that it is labor that creates values, but in assessing labor in the development of society and man, he still adheres to the idealistic point of view.
Ushinsky warmly welcomed the fall of serfdom, dreamed of the free development of Russia, but believed that this development should be accomplished not in a revolutionary way, but in a peaceful way. Politically, Ushinsky was a bourgeois democrat. He recognized the right of the people to rule the state.
At the beginning of Ushinsky's activity, religion in his worldview occupied a much greater place than in the last years of his life. At first, he considered the Christian (in particular, Orthodox) religion the basis of morality and education, recommended that priests be appointed heads and teachers of the public school, and considered the school "the threshold of the church."
At the end of his life, Ushinsky, still remaining a believer, already clearly distinguished between science and religion. He wrote at that time: "any factual science - and we do not know any other science - stands outside any religion, for it relies on facts, and not on beliefs ..."
In his later works, for example, in the materials mentioned for the third volume of the essay "Man as a subject of education", Ushinsky considers the main feature of a person to be love for people and even argues that an atheist, humanely treating people, is more Christian than a believer who is not sufficiently imbued with feeling love for one's neighbor.
In his dying article (1870) "General view of the emergence of our national schools" Ushinsky, refuting his early views that the best teachers of public schools are priests, wrote quite boldly for that time: "The idea of a church school did not take root in us. among the people, not among the clergy ... in the desire to establish schools at the churches ... there was something feigned and did not give positive results ... the peasants themselves speak out, and sometimes quite decisively, against the appointment of members of the parish clergy as teachers in peasant schools " ...
Ushinsky about pedagogical science and the art of education
Ushinsky approached the development of the theory of pedagogy as a widely educated thinker, armed with deep scientific knowledge about man as a subject of education. Ushinsky pointed out that the theory of pedagogy should be based on the use of the laws of anatomy, physiology, psychology, philosophy, history and other sciences. She should discover the laws of education, and not be limited to pedagogical recipes. He was well acquainted with the pedagogy of his time.
Rejecting the speculative, armchair construction of pedagogical theory, Ushinsky also warned against empiricism in pedagogy, rightly pointing out that it is not enough to rely only on personal, even if successful, experience of educational work. Oak demanded the unity of theory and practice. “An empty theory, based on nothing, turns out to be just as useless a thing as a fact or experience, from which no thought can be deduced, which is not preceded and followed by an idea. Theory cannot abandon reality, fact cannot abandon thought, ”wrote Ushinsky. He likened teaching practice without theory to quackery in medicine.
Ushinsky quite correctly asserted that it is not enough for a teacher to master the principles and specific rules of educational work, he also needs to arm himself with the knowledge of the basic laws of human nature and be able to apply them in each specific case. “If pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must first get to know him in all respects, too,” he said. Fulfilling this requirement, Ushinsky wrote a major work "Man as a subject of education" in two volumes and, intending to give a third volume, collected and prepared materials for it, but early death interrupted his fruitful work.
At that time, two directions fought in the field of psychology: metaphysical psychology, whose representatives tried to build psychology speculatively, a priori, starting with the definition of "soul", and a new direction - empirical psychology, whose supporters sought to rely on experience, to study the facts and certain aspects of mental life , starting with its simplest manifestations.
Ushinsky strove to proceed from experience and attached great importance to observation. There are many materialistic elements in his psychological views. He examines mental life in its development.
Ushinsky rightly reproached Herbart for being metaphysical and one-sided, pointed out the limited psychological views of another German psychologist Beneke, who at that time enjoyed great popularity. He strove to consider the psyche of not an abstract person who is outside time and space, but living, acting, developing in a certain environment.
Ushinsky correctly believed that education depends on the historical development of the people. The people themselves are paving the way to the future, but upbringing only follows this road and, acting in concert with other social forces, will help individual individuals and new generations to walk along it. Therefore, it is impossible to invent a system of education or borrow it from other peoples, it is necessary to create it in a creative way.
The idea of the nationality of education in pedagogy
Ushinsky's pedagogical system is based on the idea of nationality. “There is only one innate inclination common to all, on which upbringing can always count: this is what we call nationality ... upbringing, created by the people themselves and based on folk principles, has that educational power that is not found in the best systems, based on abstract ideas or borrowed from another people ... Every living historical nationality is the most beautiful creation of God on earth, and upbringing can only draw from this rich and pure source, "wrote Ushinsky in his article" On nationality in public education "( 1857).
Under the nationality Ushinsky understood the originality of each people, due to its historical development, geographical, natural conditions.
In the article "On nationality in social education," he therefore begins his analysis of education in the spirit of nationality with the characteristics of those traits that have historically developed among different peoples. Ushinsky gives an apt description and deep analysis of French, English, German and American upbringing. He dwells in particular detail on the criticism of the reactionary German pedagogy of the time, on which tsarism was guided. Ushinsky argued the extreme inexpediency of the mechanical transfer of this pedagogy to Russian soil.
KD Ushinsky emphasizes that one of the characteristic features of the upbringing of the Russian people is the development of patriotism in children, a deep love for the motherland. Since, in his opinion, the native language is the best expression of a nationality, the Russian language should be the basis for teaching Russian children; training in primary school should also familiarize children well with Russian history, the geography of Russia, with its nature.
KD Ushinsky pointed out that the Russian people showed and are showing great love for their homeland, proving it by their exploits in the struggle against the Polish invaders at the beginning of the 17th century, in the Patriotic War of 1812, in the Crimean campaign of 1853-1855. However, this feeling, "awakening at times with a truly lion's strength," according to Ushinsky, flares up in some people only in impulses when the homeland is in danger. Education based on nationality should teach to show this patriotism always, on a daily basis, when citizens fulfill their social duty.
This upbringing is designed to develop in children a sense of national pride, which, however, is alien to chauvinism and is combined with respect for other peoples. It should instill in children a sense of duty to their homeland, teach them to always put their personal interests above their personal ones.
Ushinsky was characterized by an inexhaustible faith in the creative powers of the Russian people. Thanks to their power, courage, and resilience, the Russian people withstood the Mongol-Tatar yoke and saved Western Europe from the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar hordes; he repeatedly saved the independence of his homeland from the encroachments of foreign enemies. Ushinsky wrote that the people themselves created “that deep language, the depth of which we still could not measure; that these simple people created the poetry that saved us from the funny childish babble in which we imitated foreigners; that it was from folk sources that we renewed all our literature and made it worthy of this name. "
Russian music and painting, Russian philosophy also drew much from folk art: from the “gray, ignorant, rough mass flows a wonderful folk song, from which the poet, artist and musician will draw their inspiration; an apt, deep word is heard, into which ... a philologist and a philosopher ponder and are amazed at the depth and truth of this word ... ".
Deeply convinced of the mighty creative forces of the Russian people, Ushinsky put forward the demand that the cause of public education be left to the people themselves and that it be freed from the burdensome government tutelage that hinders its development. “Those who are well acquainted with the history of Russia will never think for a moment to entrust public education to the people themselves,” wrote Ushinsky.
In close connection with the nationality as the basis of education in pedagogical system Ushinsky, the question is about the educational and educational value of the native language.
In a wonderful article "Native Word" Ushinsky wrote: "The language of the people is the best, never fading and ever-blossoming color of all its spiritual life, which begins far beyond the boundaries of history. The whole people and their whole homeland are spiritualized in the language; in it, the creative force of the people's spirit is transformed into thought, into a picture and sound of the sky of the motherland, its air, its physical phenomena, its climate, its fields, mountains and valleys, its forests and rivers, its storms and thunderstorms - all that deep, full of thought and feelings are the voice of native nature, which speaks so loudly about man's love for his sometimes harsh homeland, which is expressed so clearly in native songs and native tunes, in the mouths of folk poets. But in the bright, transparent depths of the folk language, not only the nature of the native country is reflected, but the whole history of the spiritual life of the people ... Language is the most lively, most abundant and strong connection that unites the outdated, living and future generations of the people into one great, historical living whole. He not only expresses the vitality of the people, but is precisely this very life. When the national language disappears, the people no longer exist! " The native language, as Ushinsky pointed out, is not only the best exponent of the spiritual properties of the people, but also the best national mentor who taught the people even when there were no books or schools. Learning the native language, the child perceives not only sounds, their combinations and modifications, but also an infinite number of concepts, views, feelings, artistic images.
The goals and means of moral education
KD Ushinsky believed that a person should be perfect physically, mentally and morally, harmoniously developed. Therefore, he defined upbringing as a purposeful, conscious process of forming a harmoniously developed personality. Among the various aspects of upbringing, Ushinsky gave the main place to the upbringing of morality. He wrote: "... we boldly express the conviction that moral influence is the main task of education, much more important than the development of the mind in general, filling the head with knowledge."
Moral education, according to Ushinsky, should develop in a child humanity, honesty and truthfulness, hard work, discipline and a sense of responsibility, self-esteem, combined with modesty. Education should develop a child's strong character and will, resilience, a sense of duty.
The upbringing of patriotism, selfless, active love for the homeland occupies in the system of moral education recommended by Ushinsky, the main place in accordance with the basis of his entire pedagogical system - nationality. Love for the homeland, wrote Ushinsky, is the most powerful feeling of a person, which, with the general death of all that is holy and noble, perishes in a bad person as the last.
Moral education should develop in children respect and love for people, a sincere, benevolent and fair attitude towards them.
Protesting against the blind, stick discipline, Ushinsky wrote: “In the old school, discipline was based on the most unnatural principle - on the fear of the teacher, distributing rewards and punishments. This fear compelled the children not only to an unusual, but also harmful position for them: to immobility, to classroom boredom and hypocrisy. " Ushinsky demanded a humane attitude towards children, alien, however, of effeminacy and affection. In relation to children, the teacher must show reasonable exactingness, instilling in them a sense of duty and responsibility.
Ushinsky castigates selfishness, careerism, idleness, greed, hypocrisy and other vices. While noting the positive features of Ushinsky's ethical views and his theory of moral education, we must at the same time keep in mind that he combines morality with religion.
However, it would be wrong not to note that his views on religion were changing. In his dying article, Ushinsky said that although the school should not contradict the church, but it should not be built on the same grounds, being called upon to satisfy the needs real life, and that religious education is in itself, and secular - in itself.
If at first the religious element prevailed in Ushinsky's views on moral education, then he assigned the main place in moral education to civic tasks - the preparation of an active citizen of his fatherland, imbued with a sense of social duty.
The means of moral education, according to Ushinsky, are: 1) education (in this respect, his educational books are remarkable, in which the development of speech, the communication of knowledge and the moral education of students are skillfully combined); 2) a personal example of a teacher (according to his figurative expression, “this is a fruitful ray of the sun for a young soul, which cannot be replaced by anything”); 3) a conviction to which he attached great importance; 4) skillful treatment of students (pedagogical tact); 5) preventive measures; and 6) incentives and penalties.
Activity and activity of the child. Labor and its educational value.
KD Ushinsky quite correctly considers the activity and activity of the child to be one of the most important conditions for his upbringing and education. In accordance with this, he attaches great importance to the mode of life of children, which should teach them to be organized, develop a desire for activity. And in the process of moral education and in teaching, he always emphasizes the importance of exercise, requires that education turn the positive beliefs of children into deeds and actions.
In his psychological statements, Ushinsky emphasizes the great importance of will. He understands learning as an active, strong-willed process, warning against amusing pedagogy and teaching children the ability to overcome difficulties. In the process of learning, the child will not be interested in everything, but let him, thanks to the exertion of will, the consciousness of his duty, learn to overcome both uninteresting and difficult. His views on the importance of the child's activity and activity are clearly expressed in statements about work.
Ushinsky believed that labor is a necessary condition for the correct development of a person. In an extensive article "Labor in its mental and educational meaning," he noted that labor is the main factor in the creation of material values and is necessary for the physical, mental and moral improvement of a person, for human dignity, for human freedom and happiness. A person owes labor to minutes of high pleasure. Labor strengthens family life.
According to Ushinsky, "upbringing, if it wants happiness for a person, should educate him not for happiness, but prepare him for the work of life." Education should develop in a person love and the habit of work.
Ushinsky attached great importance to physical labor, considered it very useful for a person to combine physical and mental labor in his activities, emphasized the great educational value of agricultural labor (especially in rural schools). Speaking about labor, he pointed out that "learning is labor and should remain labor, but labor full of thought." He strongly objected to entertaining, amusing teaching, to the desire of some educators to make learning for children as easy as possible. In the process of learning, children must be accustomed to work, to overcome difficulties. Learning by playing, wrote Ushinsky, is only possible for small children. Mental work is hard, it quickly tires the unfamiliar. It is necessary to teach children to this hard work gradually, without overloading them with unbearable tasks.
Ushinsky's instructions on the great educational value of labor, his idea that "learning is labor and serious labor ..." are of great value for pedagogy today.
Didactics of K. D. Ushinsky.
Ushinsky's didactic views are distinguished by their great depth and originality. He demanded the construction of education based on the age stages of development of children and their psychological characteristics. In particular, he provided valuable guidance on using children's attention during learning. Noting that there are two types of attention: active, that is, voluntary, and passive, that is, involuntary, Ushinsky believed that it is necessary, taking into account the characteristics of childhood, to give food to passive attention, while at the same time developing active attention as the main thing. , which a person will have to use in the future.
Speaking about memory and memorization, Ushinsky pointed out that by frequent repetition, preventing forgetting, it is necessary to strengthen the student's confidence in his memory. Education, as Ushinsky said, should be built on the principles of its feasibility for the child and consistency.
In order to avoid overwork, overloading of children with educational activities should not be allowed in the first years of education.
Based on the psychological characteristics of childhood, Ushinsky attached great importance to the principle of clarity. "A child thinks in forms, colors, sounds, sensations, in general ..."; hence the necessity for children of visual teaching, "which is based not on abstract ideas and words, but on concrete images directly perceived by the child," he wrote.
Justifying the principle of visualization of teaching from the epistemological point of view, Ushinsky pointed out that the only source of our knowledge can be "experience communicated to us through the medium of external senses." "The images directly perceived by us from the external world are, therefore, the only materials on which and through which our thinking faculty works."
According to Ushinsky, “this course of teaching, from the concrete to the abstract, the abstract, from ideas to thought, is so natural and is based on such clear psychological laws that only those who generally reject the need to conform in teaching with the requirements of human nature can reject its necessity. in general and especially for children. "
Ushinsky contributed much to the theoretical development and application of the principle of visibility: he gave a materialistic foundation for the principle of visibility. In his understanding of visualization, Ushinsky does not have that overestimation and some fetishization of visualization, which is characteristic of Comenius, and that formalism and pedantry in acquainting children with the world around them, which are characteristic of Pestalozzi. Ushinsky gave visualization its place in the learning process; he saw in it one of the conditions that ensures that students receive full-fledged knowledge, develops their logical thinking.
Rejecting the formal exercises of Pestalozzi, Ushinsky sought to acquaint children comprehensively with the objects, he wanted them to understand for themselves the real connections that exist between these objects. He wrote that a wonderful or even great mind is "the ability to see objects in their reality, comprehensively, with all the relationships in which they are placed."
Ushinsky significantly expanded and enriched with new techniques the method of visual teaching, which had previously been created by Comenius, Pestalozzi, Disterweg. So, he developed detailed instructions for telling children from pictures, indicated that pictures used for a conversation should be left hung out in the classroom to consolidate and repeat the information obtained through the conversation, etc.
Ushinsky paid much attention to comprehending, thoroughness and solidity of the assimilation of educational material by children. In the understanding and application of these principles, he also brought a lot of new things in comparison with previous teachers. For example, he developed in detail a methodology for repetition of educational material (prevention of forgetting, expansion and deepening of educational material during its repetition, the role of repetition for a better understanding of new material, etc.). Ushinsky developed in detail a methodology for the education of general ideas and concepts in children from visual single representations, a methodology for the development of children's thinking simultaneously with the development of their speech, without falling into formalism.
In the learning process, Ushinsky distinguishes between two stages. At the first stage, children, under the guidance of a teacher, observe an object or phenomenon and form a general concept about it. This stage has three stages: in the first stage, children, under the guidance of a teacher, directly perceive an object or phenomenon. At the second stage, under the guidance of a teacher, they distinguish and distinguish, compare and contrast the received ideas about the studied subject or phenomenon and form a concept about it. At the third stage, the teacher, with his explanations, supplements the concept received by the children, brings these concepts into a system, separating the main from the secondary. At the second stage, generalization and consolidation of the knowledge gained are carried out.
Ushinsky was against the division of the function of education and training between educator and teacher. He viewed training as the most important means of education. He demanded that in elementary school, instead of individual teachers teaching each subject, there should be class teachers teaching all subjects in a given class.
Criticism of the theories of formal and material education and the classical school
In the 19th century, there were two theories in didactics about the most expedient nature of education. Supporters of the so-called "formal education" (mainly defenders of classical education) believed that the main task of education is the development of memory, attention, thinking and speech, and on what educational material (even if it is far from life and has no practical significance) this will be achieved development is a secondary issue. On the contrary, the supporters of the so-called "material education" attached the main importance to the teaching material, demanding that the teaching material be vital and of practical importance. Therefore, they objected to the teaching of Latin and Greek in secondary school, the main place was given to the native language and literature, mathematics, science and new foreign languages, but did not attach sufficient importance to the development of the mental powers of students.
Ushinsky correctly recognized both of these theories as one-sided and considered equally important both the development of the mental strengths and abilities of students and their mastery of the knowledge necessary in life. He pointed out that both are necessary, moreover, one is unthinkable without the other, and therefore the opposition of formal and material education is meaningless.
Ushinsky himself believed that "the industrial direction of the century also requires industrial science," that children should be introduced to the sciences of nature and man. They must know their native language and literature, history, geography, mathematics, natural sciences are very important for a person. Pedagogy must make them "as ordinary as knowledge of grammar, arithmetic, or history."
KD Ushinsky harshly criticized classicism in secondary school, which began to be strongly implanted under the reactionary Minister of Public Education Tolstoy. In one of his last articles - "What should we do with our children" (1868) - Ushinsky, polemicizing with defenders of classicism in education, speaks of the enormous educational and educational value of natural science and defends the real direction of general education. He points out that the natural sciences develop the ability to observe life, interest children incomparably more than Latin and Greek declensions and conjugations, contribute to the development of logical thinking and are of great practical importance. In his book for reading "Children's World" Ushinsky gave a large educational material on natural science for initial training. He warmly recommended practical exercises for rural schoolchildren in the vegetable garden and in the field.
K. D. Ushinsky about the lesson and teaching methods
Ushinsky paid much attention to the lesson in his pedagogical system. Necessary conditions successful organization of lessons at school, the characteristic features of the classroom-lesson system, he considered a class with a solid composition of students as the main link of the school, a firm schedule of classroom lessons, frontal lessons with all students of this class in combination with individual lessons with the leading role of the teacher.
The types of training sessions in the classroom can be different: communication of new knowledge, exercises, repetition of what has been passed, taking into account knowledge, written and graphic works of students. Each lesson should be purposeful, complete and educational. Given the relatively rapid fatigue of attention in children (especially younger age), Ushinsky recommended a change of occupation and a variety of methods.
Attaching great importance to the development of children's ability to work independently, Ushinsky advised that from the very beginning of school studies the teacher should accustom children to the correct methods of independent work in the classroom. For this, in his opinion, at first, children should not be given homework until they have mastered the correct skill of independent work.
In elementary school, Ushinsky recommends giving elementary information on history, geography, natural history in the lessons of the native language through explanatory reading. In the process of explanatory reading, explanations of incomprehensible words and expressions, moral conclusions, etc. are made. However, it is required that with his explanations the teacher does not lead children away from the article or poem being read, so that the main reading material is always in the center of attention.
In a remarkable article "On the Initial Teaching of the Russian Language" (1864) Ushinsky gave valuable methodological instructions. This teaching, in his opinion, has three tasks: 1) to develop the child's speech, 2) to introduce children into the conscious possession of the treasures of their native language, and 3) to master the logic of the language (its grammar). All three tasks are performed simultaneously, jointly.
For the development of speech, Ushinsky recommends systematic exercises - first oral, then written, which should gradually become more complicated. Great importance is attached to the correct speech of the teacher. The second task is achieved through the study of folk poetry and the best examples of fiction.
Ushinsky pays great attention to the careful selection of works for children's reading. They should be highly artistic, accessible to children’s understanding, awaken energy and cheerfulness in children.
Ushinsky attached great importance to familiarizing children with fairy tales, epics, folk songs, proverbs, riddles. From the works of Russian writers, he recommended selected works of Pushkin, Krylov, Lermontov, Koltsov and others available for children.
Attaching great importance to grammar as the logic of language, Ushinsky warns against two extremes: from dry grammar - excessive enthusiasm for grammar, on the one hand, and from neglecting grammar, underestimating it - on the other. Each grammatical rule should be a deduction from the use of forms of language already known to children. Children should be taught to understand the grammar rules by gradual exercises.
Ushinsky is credited with introducing and widespread in Russia the sound method of teaching reading. Of the various varieties of this method, Ushinsky recommended the analytical-synthetic sound method of writing-reading and based on this method the first lessons of his "Native Word".
Educational books by K. D. Ushinsky
Ushinsky compiled two textbooks for elementary education: "Rodnoe Slovo" was intended for initial education, starting with a primer, in which the main attention is paid to the Russian language in connection with the development of children's thinking and the expansion of their stock of ideas about the life around them; "Children's world" is for somewhat older students (about the third and fourth years of study), in it the center of gravity lies on providing children with initial information on natural science and geography.
Both of these educational books are examples of richness of content, excellence in language and methodology. They enjoyed well-deserved success and were widely disseminated in pre-revolutionary Russia (the first part of Rodnoye Slovo was published in about 150 editions). Many generations of Russian students were brought up on these books. The books served as an example by which educational books were compiled for children of other peoples of Russia; for example, educational books in the Georgian language - by the famous Georgian teacher Ya. S. Gogebashvili (follower of Ushinsky) and others, as well as in a number of Slavic countries (for example, in Bulgaria).
In addition to carefully selected artistic material (poems, fables, fairy tales, etc.) and short stories of moral content, Ushinsky publishes in Rodnoye Slovo his articles on trees, animals, etc., which are remarkable for their remarkable simplicity, brevity, scientific content, grace and imagery of presentation.
The teacher's special attention should be paid to articles-stories in 2-3 lines on any moral topic, for example: “Lame and blind. The blind and lame had to cross a fast stream. The blind man took the lame one on his shoulders - and both crossed safely. "
Proverbs, sayings, tongue twisters, riddles are widely used in "Native Word". Perfectly selected exercises for the development of children's ability to compare, distinguish, generalize.
Simplicity, imagery and emotionality of presentation, variety and richness of material (from fiction, geography, history, natural science), excellent language, the ability to interest a child, a combination of educational and upbringing elements, a variety and richness of exercises - these are the advantages of Children's World and Native words "in a pedagogical sense. In them Ushinsky first used the works of Zhukovsky, Pushkin, Koltsov, Nikitin and other Russian writers.
Ushinsky considered the textbook "the foundation of good teaching." Evaluating the textbooks that existed at that time in Russia and Western Europe, Ushinsky pointed out two main shortcomings of them: the poverty of factual material (facts, names, dates) in the presence of large generalizations and, on the contrary, empirical in nature: an abundance of facts that overburden the memory, with the poverty of generalizations and ideas.
The teacher and his preparation
Ushinsky highly appreciated the role of the teacher. He rightly believed that the influence of a teacher on students constitutes the educational force that cannot be replaced by any statutes and programs, any organization of educational institutions, that "the personality of the educator means everything in the matter of education."
Ushinsky pointed out that the activity of a teacher, more than any other, needs constant inspiration: it is outwardly monotonous, its results do not show up soon, there is a strong danger in it, teaching the same thing from year to year, "to get involved and teach almost mechanically" ... He warned teachers against this danger, called them to a constant movement forward. Outwardly, the role of a school teacher is modest, but how great is the social significance of his work! Ushinsky believed that society should treat the teacher with great respect and care, constant attention.
A teacher should not only be a teacher of certain subjects, but also an educator, love his profession, treat with a sense of great responsibility to the work of education, be an educated person, know pedagogy and psychology, have pedagogical skills and pedagogical tact.
In the article "Project of Teachers' Seminary" (1861) Ushinsky elaborated in detail a plan for the training of teachers for primary schools. According to this project, teachers' seminaries should be opened not in large centers, but in small towns and even villages, so that the temptations of the big city do not negatively affect the pupils, and the teachers would completely devote themselves to work in teacher's seminaries, not being distracted by part-time jobs in other educational institutions.
Pupils of teachers' seminaries should be primarily children of peasants. In order to better ensure moral education and greater influence on the part of teachers, pupils should live in a boarding school, getting used to a simple, harsh and active life.
Ushinsky outlined a wide range of sciences studied by future teachers in teachers' seminaries, namely: Russian language and literature, arithmetic, geography, history, natural science (information from botany, zoology, human anatomy and physiology, as well as some information on agriculture and medicine ).
According to Ushinsky's project, a large place in the course of the teachers' seminary was occupied by the sciences of the pedagogical cycle: psychology, pedagogy and methods of initial education. Seminary students acquired the skills of expressive reading, beautiful writing, drawing, sketching and singing. The pedagogical practice of the pupils of the seminary was carried out in the folk school, which exists at each teacher's seminary. In addition, a number of nearby schools were attached to the seminary, in which the seminarians also conducted teaching practice, and those who graduated from the seminary worked during the year under the guidance of teachers as novice teachers-trainees. The seminary kept in touch with teachers who were its former pupils.
According to Ushinsky's project, the best teachers 'seminaries were opened (for example, the Transcaucasian teacher's seminary in Gori and some zemstvo teachers' schools was organized by Ushinsky's colleague D. D. Semenov).
Ushinsky expressed the idea of pedagogical faculties, where teachers of pedagogy and secondary school teachers would be trained. He wrote: if we have medical faculties and no pedagogical faculties, this only means that we value the health of our body more than moral health and education. Ushinsky's idea was realized only after the October Socialist Revolution.
The value of K. D. Ushinsky in the development of pedagogy and school
Ushinsky is a great Russian teacher, the founder of the folk school in Russia, the creator of a deep, harmonious pedagogical system, the author of wonderful educational books, according to which tens of millions of people in Russia studied for more than half a century. He - "the teacher of Russian teachers" - developed a system for training folk teachers in the teachers' seminary, the best folk teachers in their pedagogical work were guided by the works of Ushinsky.
As the poetic genius of Pushkin brought to life a whole group of poets of the Pushkin school, so the pedagogical genius of Ushinsky contributed to the emergence of a galaxy of remarkable teachers of the 60s and 70s, followers of Ushinsky - N.F.Bunakov, N.A. Korf, V.I. Vodovozov, D. D. Semenov, L. N. Modzalevsky and others.
Ushinsky had a great influence on the leading teachers of other peoples of Russia (Georgia, Armenia, Kazakhstan), on the pedagogy of Bulgaria, the Czech Republic and other Slavic peoples.
As Modzalevsky pointed out in 1895 at a meeting dedicated to the 25th anniversary of the death of Ushinsky, “Ushinsky is our truly people's teacher, just like Lomonosov is our people's scientist, Suvorov is our people's commander, Pushkin is our people's poet, Glinka is our folk composer ”.
By his activities, KD Ushinsky significantly raised the educational level of the people's elementary school, which was especially facilitated by his educational books "Children's World" and "Rodnoe Slovo". He expanded and enriched with new techniques the method of visual teaching, which had previously been created by Comenius, Pestalozzi, Disterweg, introduced a lot of new things regarding the application of the principle of conscientiousness, solidity and strength, as well as the development of the activity and activity of children.
Especially valuable is Ushinsky's idea of the connection between school and life. He said that life easily overturns the school, which gets across its path, that "true education should be a mediator between school, on the one hand, and life and science, on the other." The teacher must always remember that he brings new generations out of school into life, the direction and content of social development depends on the activities of his pupils.
The Soviet pedagogical community deeply reveres Ushinsky. NK Krupskaya advised young teachers to read more of Ushinsky's works. MI Kalinin in 1941, in one of his speeches, declared that the valuable ideas from the pedagogical heritage of Ushinsky only in our socialist society can be fully implemented.
The peoples of the USSR have deep respect for the memory of the great Russian teacher. A number of educational institutions were named after Ushinsky, scholarships were established in his name, a medal named after Ushinsky was established, which is awarded for outstanding pedagogical works and services in the field of upbringing and education to the best teachers, scientists and public figures.
N.A.Konstantinov, E.N.Medynsky, M.F.Shabaeva, "History of Pedagogy"
"Education ", Moscow, 1982
Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky- a famous teacher, founder of Russian scientific pedagogy. He is the creator of many scientific pedagogical works, known both in Russia and abroad. His scientific views on the theory of education and upbringing are still in demand and are often cited in various scientific and popular science publications.
Biography of Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky
Was born Konstantin Dmitrievich in Tula on February 19, 1824. In 1840 he graduated from the Novgorod-Seversk gymnasium and entered the Faculty of Law at Moscow University. It was the university teachers who influenced his choice to pursue pedagogy. After graduating from the main course of study in 1844, Konstantin Dmitrievich stayed at the university to prepare for the master's exam.
Already in the summer of 1844 Ushinsky receives her PhD in jurisprudence. In 1846, he became acting professor of cameral sciences at the Department of the Encyclopedia of Jurisprudence, State Law and Science of Finance at the Demidov Lyceum in Yaroslavl. But the difference in pedagogical views with the leadership of the lyceum led to the resignation Konstantin Dmitrievich in 1849.
After that Ushinsky was an inspector of the Gatchina Orphanage Institute and an inspector of classes at the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens. In both educational institutions, he managed to radically change the teaching system for the better. However, the Tsarist government was dissatisfied with the teacher's initiative. In 1862 Konstantin Dmitrievich fired from the Smolny Institute and sent on a long business trip abroad, ostensibly to study the theory of female education abroad.
Myself Ushinsky regarded this trip as a link, but the trip benefited him. During this time, he studied women's and primary education systems in a number of countries. Several scientific articles and books have become the result of his activities. In 1867, Konstantin Dmitrievich returned to Russia and began to work on the third volume of scientific work. ... He did not have time to finish it - in 1870 he died. However, during his 47 years he did a lot for the evolution of Russian pedagogy.
The base of Ushinsky's teachings and their influence on modern pedagogy
Key ideas Ushinsky- democratization of public education and nationality of upbringing. He believed that the theory of pedagogy should be based on the laws of philosophy, psychology, anatomy and physiology. In his opinion, pedagogy cannot be based only on one's own experience, even if it was successful. And theory must be accompanied by practice. Ushinsky wrote that a theory that has no foundation turns out to be just as useless a thing as a fact or experience from which no conclusion can be drawn. That theory cannot deny reality, fact cannot deny thought.
Besides Konstantin Dmitrievich believed that upbringing and education should take into account the originality of each nation, i.e. traditions, geography, historical features. Nationality, in his opinion, is best expressed through the study and respect of the native language and native history. Such an upbringing, as he said, should develop in children patriotism, a sense of duty to the Fatherland and a sense of national pride, which, however, is alien to chauvinism and combines respect for other peoples.
Ushinsky defined upbringing as a conscious process of creating a harmonious personality. In his opinion, moral education plays an important role in pedagogy. He argued that moral influence is the main task of education, more important than developing the mind and filling the head with knowledge. Konstantin Dmitrievich believed that the education of morality should develop discipline, humanity, honesty and hard work in a person. And, moreover, self-esteem paired with humility.
Means of moral education according to Ushinsky are teaching, the teacher's personal example, persuasion, pedagogical tact, measures of prevention, encouragement and punishment. Government dissatisfaction Ushinsky provoked his protest against the discipline of the old school, based on the blind obedience of the student to the teacher and providing for physical punishment. In his opinion, humanity towards the student should be the basis of education.
Views Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky reflected in many of his pedagogical works and articles. In 1857-1858 he published his articles "On the benefits of pedagogical literature", "Three elements of the school", "On the nationality in public education" and others in "Journal for Education"... In 1860-1861 he published his pedagogical articles in the "Journal of the Ministry of Public Education" "Labor in its mental and educational meaning" and "Native Word" ... In 1861 he produces a reader "Child's world" , in 1864 - "Native word" , a book for classroom reading. Also in 1868-169 he created a fundamental scientific work in two volumes “Man as a subject of education. The experience of pedagogical anthropology " and collected materials for the third volume.
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GAPOU RK "Petrozavodsk Pedagogical College"
subject: Pedagogy
on the topic: Pedagogical ideas of K.D. Ushinsky
Performed:
Polina Prokopova
Petrozavodsk 2017
Introduction
1. Life and pedagogical activity K. D. Ushinsky
2. The idea of the nationality of upbringing in the pedagogy of K.D. Ushinsky
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The Russian educational psychologist Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky developed as a scientist in the era of the liberation all-Russian movement, part of which was the social pedagogical movement of the 50-60s of the last century. The abolition of serfdom and the ensuing changes in the life of Russia laid bare the fundamental task of renewing and expanding education, the creation of a popular school almost anew. In solving this most important task, social and pedagogical thought played an exceptional role, in the development and approval of which the indisputable merit belongs to KD Ushinsky. Ushinsky had predecessors, whose thoughts and experience he took into account. There were also associates in pedagogy. But he turned out to be the most talented among them and managed to do for short term much more than others in half a century. He showed a striking example of unshakable conviction and moral fortitude in spreading and defending pedagogical ideas that helped to renew educational institutions, be it schools for orphans or noble maidens, Sunday school for adults or teachers' seminary. And his educational books "Children's World" and "Rodnoye Slovo", along with manuals for teachers, have become the best for many decades. The author himself acquired the title of Teacher of Russian teachers. Ushinsky's contribution to the theory of upbringing and education rests on two leading ideas of his entire pedagogical heritage: nationality and anthropologism. The first is expressed by him in all articles and embodied in textbooks. The second - in the major work “Man as a subject of education. The experience of pedagogical anthropology ”.
1. Life and pedagogical activity of K. D. Ushinsky
Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky (1824-1870) was born into the family of a small-land nobleman and spent his childhood and adolescence on his father's estate near the city of Novgorod - Seversk. He received his general education in Novgorod - Seversk gymnasium. After graduating from Novgorod - Seversk gymnasium, Ushinsky entered Moscow University at the Faculty of Law, which he graduated brilliantly in 1844, and two years later, at the age of 22, was appointed acting professor of cameral sciences (including the general concept of law, elements of the science of economics , financial law, state law) at the Yaroslavl Legal Lyceum. However, after two and a half years, Ushinsky's brilliantly begun professorial activity was interrupted, he was fired as a person who did not want to obey the orders of his superiors. Ushinsky was then forced to serve as a minor official, but the bureaucratic service did not satisfy him either. In his diaries, he spoke of the service with disgust. Some satisfaction was given to him by literary work in the magazines Sovremennik and Library for Reading, where he posted translations from English, abstracts of articles, reviews of materials published in foreign journals.
In 1854, Ushinsky managed to get an appointment, first as a teacher, and then as an inspector of the Gatchina Orphanage Institute, where he significantly improved the organization of education and upbringing.
Under the influence of the social pedagogical movement that had begun, Ushinsky in 1857-1858 published several articles in the "Journal for Education" ("On the Use of Pedagogical Literature", "On Nationality in Public Education", "Three Elements of School", etc.), which glorified his name.
In 1859, Ushinsky was appointed class inspector at the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens. In this institution, closely associated with the royal court, an atmosphere of servility and ingratiation flourished in front of the empress's inner circle, her favorites. The girls were brought up in the spirit of Christian morality and misconceptions about the duties of a wife and mother, they were given very little real knowledge and were more concerned about instilling in them secular manners and admiration for tsarism.
Ushinsky, despite the opposition of reactionary teachers, boldly carried out a reform of the institute, introduced a new curriculum, the main subjects of which made the Russian language, the best works of Russian literature, natural sciences, widely used visualization in teaching, conducted experiments in biology and physics lessons. Ushinsky invited prominent teachers-methodologists as teachers: in literature - V. I. Vodovozov, in geography - D. D. Semyonov, in history - M. I. Semevsky and others. In order to prepare the pupils for useful work, a two-year pedagogical class was introduced in addition to the general education class of seven. At this time, Ushinsky also compiled a reader on the Russian language "Children's World" (1861) in two parts for teaching in the elementary grades, containing a lot of material on natural science.
Ushinsky edited the Journal of the Ministry of Public Education in 1860-1861. He completely changed his program, turned a dry and uninteresting official departmental body into a scientific and pedagogical journal.
During these years, Ushinsky published several of his pedagogical articles in the "Journal of the Ministry of Public Education": "Labor in its mental and educational meaning", "Rodnoe Slovo", "Project of the Teachers' Seminary".
Taking advantage of the situation of the onset of reaction, the head of the institute, the priest and the teachers dismissed by Ushinsky intensified the persecution, accused him of godlessness, free thinking and political unreliability. In the summer of 1862, he was dismissed from the Smolny Institute. The tsarist government, in order to disguise the illegal removal of Ushinsky, sent him on a long business trip abroad to study female education abroad. Ushinsky rightly regarded this trip as a disguised exile.
2. The idea of the nationality of education in the pedagogy of KD Ushinsky
Ushinsky's pedagogical system is based on the idea of nationality. “There is only one innate inclination common to all, on which upbringing can always count: this is what we call nationality ... upbringing, created by the people themselves and based on popular principles, has that educational power that is not found in the best systems, based on abstract ideas or borrowed from another people ... Every living historical nationality is the most beautiful creation of God on earth, and upbringing can only draw from this rich and pure source ", - wrote Ushinsky in the article" On nationality in public education " (1857).
Under the nationality Ushinsky understood the originality of each people, due to its historical development, geographical, natural conditions.
In the article "On nationality in social education," he therefore begins his analysis of education in the spirit of nationality with the characteristics of those traits that have historically developed among different peoples. Ushinsky gives an apt description and deep analysis of French, English, German and American upbringing. He dwells in particular detail on the criticism of the reactionary German pedagogy of the time, on which tsarism was guided. Ushinsky argued the extreme inexpediency of the mechanical transfer of this pedagogy to Russian soil.
K. D. Ushinsky emphasizes that one of the characteristic features of the upbringing of the Russian people is the development of patriotism in children, a deep love for the motherland. Since, in his opinion, the native language is the best expression of a nationality, the Russian language should be the basis for teaching Russian children; Primary school education should also familiarize children well with Russian history, the geography of Russia, and its nature.
K. D. Ushinsky pointed out that the Russian people showed and are showing great love for their homeland, proving it by their exploits in the struggle against the Polish invaders at the beginning of the 17th century, in the Patriotic War of 1812, in the Crimean campaign of 1853-1855. However, this feeling, "awakening at times with a truly lion's strength," according to Ushinsky, flares up in some people only in impulses when the homeland is in danger. Education based on nationality should teach to show this patriotism always, on a daily basis, when citizens fulfill their social duty.
This upbringing is designed to develop in children a sense of national pride, which, however, is alien to chauvinism and is combined with respect for other peoples. It should instill in children a sense of duty to their homeland, teach them to always put common interests above personal ones.
Ushinsky was characterized by an inexhaustible faith in the creative powers of the Russian people. Thanks to their power, courage, and resilience, the Russian people withstood the Mongol-Tatar yoke and saved Western Europe from the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar hordes; he repeatedly saved the independence of his homeland from the encroachments of foreign enemies. Ushinsky wrote that the people themselves created “that deep language, the depth of which we still could not measure; that these simple people created the poetry that saved us from the funny childish babble in which we imitated foreigners; that it was from folk sources that we renewed all our literature and made it worthy of this name. "
Russian music and painting, Russian philosophy also drew much from folk art: from the “gray, ignorant, rough mass flows a wonderful folk song, from which the poet, artist and musician will draw their inspiration; an apt, deep word is heard, into which ... a philologist and a philosopher ponder and are amazed at the depth and truth of this word ... ".
Deeply convinced of the powerful creative forces of the Russian people, Ushinsky put forward the demand that the cause of public education be left to the people themselves, and that it should be freed from the burdensome government tutelage that hinders its development. “Those who are well acquainted with the history of Russia will never think for a moment to entrust public education to the people themselves,” wrote Ushinsky.
In close connection with the nationality as the basis of education in the pedagogical system of Ushinsky, there is the question of the educational and educational significance of the native language.
In a wonderful article "Native Word" Ushinsky wrote: "The language of the people is the best, never fading and ever-blossoming color of all its spiritual life, which begins far beyond the boundaries of history. The whole people and their whole homeland are spiritualized in the language; in it, the creative power of the people's spirit is transformed into thought, into a picture and sound of the sky of the motherland, its air, its physical phenomena, its climate, its fields, mountains and valleys, its forests and rivers, its storms and thunderstorms - all that deep, full thoughts and feelings are the voice of native nature, which speaks so loudly about a person's love for his sometimes harsh homeland, which is expressed so clearly in native songs and native tunes, in the mouths of folk poets. But in the bright, transparent depths of the folk language, not only the nature of the native country is reflected, but the whole history of the spiritual life of the people ... Language is the most lively, most abundant and strong connection that unites the outdated, living and future generations of the people into one great, historical living whole. He not only expresses the vitality of the people, but is precisely this very life. When the national language disappears, the people no longer exist! " The native language, as Ushinsky pointed out, is not only the best exponent of the spiritual properties of the people, but also the best national mentor who taught the people even when there were no books or schools. Learning the native language, the child perceives not only sounds, their combinations and modifications, but also an infinite number of concepts, views, feelings, artistic images.
Psychological foundations of education and training.
KD Ushinsky put forward and substantiated the most important requirement that every teacher must fulfill - to systematically study children in the process of upbringing and take into account the psychological characteristics of children. “If pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must get to know him in all respects ... all his great spiritual demands. "
The historical merit of K.D. Ushinsky lies in the fact that, at the level of scientific achievements of that time, he outlined the psychological foundations of didactics - the theory of learning.
Ushinsky gave instructions on how to properly develop the active attention of children in the learning process through exercise, how to educate conscious memory. Ushinsky psychologically substantiated the most important didactic principles of upbringing education: visibility, systematicity and consistency, thoroughness and strength of students' assimilation of educational material, a variety of teaching methods.
Foundations of the theory of preschool education.
KD Ushinsky considered the main characteristic of preschool children to be a thirst for independent activity and knowledge of the world around them. Ushinsky attached great educational value to the games of children. He created an original theory of children's play, substantiating it with scientific and psychological data. Game activity is based, in his opinion, on hard work children's imagination and on the desire of children to show independent activity in the acquisition of knowledge, in the exercise of their strength.
The vividness of children's imagination and children's belief in the reality of their own ideas and created images are the psychological basis of children's play. “In play, the child lives, and traces of this life, into which he could not yet enter due to the complexity of its phenomena and interests ... In play, the child, already a ripening person, tries his strength and independently disposes of his own creatures.”
Social games and their orientation are of great importance in shaping the behavior of children. "Many children take part in public games, and the first associations of public relations are formed." Ushinsky also recommended that it be widely used in educational work folk games with preschool children; he called on teachers to collect folk games. "To pay attention to these folk games, to develop this rich source, to organize them and create an excellent and powerful educational tool is the task of future pedagogy."
Toys are of no small educational value as material for children's play. "The best toy for a child is one that he can make to change in a variety of ways." In the matter of raising children, Ushinsky assigned a place to nature - one of "powerful agents in the upbringing of man." Communication of children with nature helps to develop their mental abilities. Observing and studying native nature also contributes to the development of a sense of patriotism, as well as aesthetic education. Ushinsky pedagogy education preschool
Ushinsky put aesthetic education in direct connection with the moral education of preschool children. "Decorate," said Ushinsky, "the child's room with beautiful things, but only the beauty of which is available to him."
Ushinsky highly appreciated the importance of good singing as one of the means of aesthetic education of children and at the same time refreshing the life of children, helping to unite them into a friendly team. Drawing children is a valuable activity in terms of aesthetic education and the general mental development of children.
Ushinsky gave instructions on improving the educational work of kindergartens, which were included in the fund of Russian preschool pedagogy of the second half of the 19th century.
1. During the stay of children in kindergarten, do not overwork them with "sedentary activities" and formally systematized didactic games, it is necessary to give them more free time for independent activities.
2. It is necessary to provide the child in kindergarten with the opportunity to temporarily retire so that he can show his independence in one form or another of his activities.
The teacher must come from among the people, possess the best moral qualities, all-round knowledge, love her work and children, serve as an example for them, study the laws of mental development of children, implement an individual approach to children.
K. D. Ushinsky about the time of the beginning of the education of children.
K. D. Ushinsky proved that premature learning, like being late in learning, has its bad sides. Premature learning overstrains the brains of children, instills in them self-doubt, discourages them from learning; lag in learning, on the other hand, leads to a lag in the development of children, the acquisition of habits and inclinations with which teachers have to struggle intensely.
Ushinsky distinguished, firstly, methodical systematic education, beginning at the age of 7, and, secondly, preparatory teaching carried out in preschool age. He considered it necessary to develop: educational activities for children, "prior to book learning," and rules of learning and development before the acquisition of literacy by children; non-educational activities that are related to children's play (sewing dresses for dolls, weaving, planting flowers, etc.).
He pointed out that when determining the beginning of methodological education, one must bear in mind not only the child's age, but also the degree of development, readiness for classes and special circumstances (the child's health, his living conditions, etc.), as well as the nature of the proposed educational system. "The easier the teaching methods provided to the child, the earlier the teaching can begin."
The importance of Ushinsky in the development of pedagogy.
KD Ushinsky is the founder of the original Russian pedagogy. He made a valuable contribution to the development of world pedagogical thought. He deeply analyzed the theory and practice of education, showed the achievements and shortcomings in this area, and thus summed up the development of pedagogy of other peoples.
He substantiated the idea of national upbringing, which served as the basis for the creation of an original Russian pedagogy. His teaching about the role of the native language in the mental and moral education and training of children, about the public school, his theory of preschool education of children had a huge influence on the teachers of multinational Russia.
Conclusion
It was only with the acquisition of freedom and democracy by Russia that pedagogy received the opportunity to follow foreign experience, as well as to implement the previously unclaimed unclaimed improvements.
Modern pedagogy, first of all, is aimed not at the impersonal masses, as it was before, but at a specific person, an individual with his inherent uniqueness and originality.
K. D. Ushinsky is the founder of the original Russian pedagogy, in particular preschool pedagogy; he made a valuable contribution to the development of world pedagogical thought. Ushinsky deeply analyzed the theory and practice of education, including preschool, and education abroad, showed the achievements and shortcomings in this area and thereby summed up the development of pedagogy of other peoples. He substantiated the idea of national upbringing, which served as the basis for the creation of an original Russian pedagogy. His teaching about the role of the native language in the mental and moral education and training of children, about the public school, his theory of preschool education of children had a huge impact not only on modern, but also on subsequent generations of teachers of multinational Russia.
Bibliography
1. History of pedagogy Moscow: Education, 1961
2. History of foreign preschool pedagogy: Reader: Textbook. Allowance for students of pedagogical institutes on specials. "Preschool pedagogy and psychology" / N.B. Mchedlidze et al. - 2nd ed. - Moscow: Education, 1986
3. History of pedagogy / Under. Ed. ON. Konstantinova, E.N. Medynsky, M.F. Shabaeva. - Moscow: Education, 1982
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“The educator is an artist; pupil - a work of art; a school is a workshop where a semblance of a deity emerges from a rough piece of marble. " K.D. Ushinsky Collected works in 11 volumes. Ed. A. M. Egorina. M.-L., 1948-1952, T. 2, S. 12.
K. D. Ushinsky created an original pedagogical system that considers the main problems of education and training. To reveal his didactic principles and ideas used in modern school, it is necessary to consider the key points in Konstantin Dmitrievich's understanding of pedagogy, the goals and objectives of upbringing and education, as well as his own judgments on the content and forms of the pedagogical process.
First of all, it should be understood that Ushinsky did not perceive pedagogy as a science, since it “cannot have claims to such independence as the sciences possess, discovering the laws of nature, history and the human spirit. She only uses all these discoveries to achieve her special educational goal. " K.D. Ushinsky On the benefits of pedagogical literature. P. 25. Under pedagogy, Ushinsky understood the art of educating a person. Ushinsky considered physiology, psychology, logic and history to be the main sciences that make up the “main foundations of pedagogy”. The great teacher considered the upbringing of such a "person who would become an independent unit in the number of society" Ushinsky KD Collected works. T.4, S. 226., and would be ready for an independent life in society. At the same time, the goal of upbringing was a harmoniously developed person, and the basis of upbringing was free labor.
K.D. Ushinsky considered it as a means of education and distinguished two types of teaching: passive teaching through teaching and active teaching through his own experience. In the learning process, Ushinsky identified the following stages:
l 1. Live perception of the material;
b 2. Processing in the mind of the received images;
b 3. Systematization of knowledge;
b Consolidation of knowledge and skills. History of Pedagogy and Education, ed. Z.I. Vasilyeva. 5th edition. M., 2009.
Ushinsky believed that the central task of teaching was not the quantitative assimilation of facts, the expansion of knowledge and experience, but their systematization, the identification of the main thing in them. According to the great teacher, training can fulfill its educational and educational tasks only if three conditions are met:
o if it is associated with life,
o if built according to the nature of the child,
o if teaching is conducted in the native language.
Ushinsky assigned the main leading role in the school to the national teacher-educator. No statutes and programs, according to Ushinsky, can replace the individual in the matter of upbringing. The high social vocation of a truly national teacher is to bring knowledge to the masses, to shape the views of their pupils. The beliefs of the educator are the most important thing in education. Ushinsky spoke with extraordinary insight about the role and purpose of the educator in his article "On the Benefits of Pedagogical Literature" written in 1857. A teacher, according to Ushinsky, should be highly moral and know the characteristics of students in all circumstances.
Ushinsky, being familiar with the European education system, as well as possessing pedagogical theory and experience, formed in his pedagogical system some of the main problems of the modern educational system in the Russian Empire.
The first can be called the problem of the nationality of upbringing and the public school. Ushinsky did not perceive the system of education in Russia with its classical, antique orientation and believed that it was time for him to abandon it and start creating a school on a new basis - a folk one. "Education, created by the people themselves and based on popular principles, has that educational power that is not in the best systems based on abstract ideas or borrowed from another people." K.D. Ushinsky About nationality in public education. P. 39. Konstantin Dmitrievich believed that prosperity does not consist in imitation of Western transformations, but in the independent development of the state people's organism, arising from the consciousness of the real needs of the people. Hence the requirements for the "folk" system of education and upbringing:
Education should be original, national;
The cause of public education should be in the hands of the people themselves, who would be involved in organizing it, directing and managing the school;
The people determine the content and nature of education;
The entire population should be covered by education, public education;
The upbringing of women should be carried out on an equal basis with men;
Ushinsky resolutely defended the equality of women in all areas of life, paying special attention to the right of women to education equal to that of men. "A woman, like an idol, eternally resting from laziness on a bed of roses, is the most absurd creation of the depraved imagination of French novelists." K.D. Ushinsky Labor in its mental and educational meaning. P. 23.
Teaching should be conducted in the native language;
Ushinsky believed that the main subject in the general humane education of a modern person was not at all classical languages, but his native language and native literature.
The principle of nationality should be realized through teaching at the school of national studies: the history of one's country, geography, the study of Russian writers and poets (literature), the nature of Russia, etc.
Ushinsky believed that "the study of Latin grammar is recognized as a patent for further education" Ushinsky KD Collected works. Vol. 2, p. 103., but there is no place in it for a thorough knowledge of one's homeland, or respect for one's homeland.
It is noteworthy that the principle of nationality in Ushinsky's system of views was adopted by the Soviet school education system, which was building its own educational system. Referring to his concept of nationality, Ushinsky even asked the question: "By what right does the future Russian tsar raise a person who does not know a word of Russian?" K.D. Ushinsky Letters about the education of the heir to the Russian throne. P. 47.
Another problem of the great educator's research was the development of pedagogical anthropology. Received its wide disclosure in the major work “Man as a subject of education. Experience in pedagogical anthropology. Konstantin Dmitrievich advocated a comprehensive study of the characteristics of a person: "If pedagogy wants to educate a person in all his relations, then it must, first of all, recognize him in all respects." Ushinsky KD Collected Works. T.8., P. 23. At the same time, Ushinsky drew his main attention to "individual anthropology", that is, to the study of the age-related psychological characteristics of children and the need for systematic individual work with children in the process of education and training.
In pedagogical terms, the main thing for Ushinsky was not "education of the mind" - training, but "education of the soul" - education. Therefore, the third important problem in Ushinsky's pedagogy is the upbringing of moral feelings. Its disclosure is given by Ushinsky in the second volume of "The Experience of Pedagogical Anthropology" and in some articles. According to Ushinsky's deep conviction, morality is based on the struggle for human happiness, and happiness is only in free labor. Therefore, according to the views of Ushinsky, moral and free labor education inextricably linked. Ushinsky considered the most important means of moral education: training, free labor activity of students, the teacher's personal example, persuasion, and the cultivation of behavioral habits. Konstantinov N.A. History of pedagogy. M., 1982, p. 226.
The fourth main problem in Ushinsky's pedagogy is the system of general didactic requirements for successful learning. Ushinsky subjected to justified criticism both supporters of formal education (the goal of education is the development of the mental abilities of students) and material (the goal is the acquisition of knowledge) for their one-sidedness. Ushinsky considers it necessary to develop the mental strength of students, and to master the knowledge associated with life.
So, the pedagogical principles of K.D. Ushinsky are multifaceted and versatile, but there is a logical connection between them, based on a sense of patriotism, on the desire to transform the education and upbringing system for the better and make it no worse than the educational systems of European countries.
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